
class J^X_\a: 

Book >C3c2lS 



A 



MANUAL ON CATTLE 



FOR THE USE OP 



THE FARMERS OF GEORGIA. 



PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP 



J. T. HENDERSON, 

Commissioner of Agriculture for the State of Georgia* 



ATLANTA, GEORGIA: 

JAMES P. HARRISON & CO., PRINTERS. 
1880. 









M9oi 



INTRODUCTION. 



The Act establishing this Department, approved Feb- 
ruary £8, 1874, section 7, defining the duties of the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture, says : " Said Commissioner shall 
report, as hereinbefore set forth, upon any matter of inter- 
est in connection with the dairy, that he may deem of 
interest to the people of this State." 

While this section relates particularly to " matter of 
interest in connection with the dairy," this work will not 
be confined to the dairy, but will treat the general subject 
of cattle-raising in Georgia, in such manner as will convey 
to the reader, in the most condensed form, the information 
needed by every owner of cattle to insure profit and guard 
against loss by disease and neglect. The reception ac- 
corded the " Manual of Sheep Husbandry in Georgia" 
and the " Manual on the Hog," by the reading public, 
inspires confidence that one on the Cow, in which every 
family, however humble, is interested, will not be an un- 
welcome visitor to the homes of the farmers of Georgia. 

The facts connected with rearing cattle in Georgia, with 
the practice pursued by stock-raisers in different parts of 
the State, have been collected in the usual manner by 
means of questions sent to those best informed, on the 
subject in hand, in every county. 



4 INTRODUCTION. [138] 

The answers to some of these questions have been con- 
solidated and the results given ; others have been used as 
the basis of remark. 

The leading authors on cattle have been liberally con- 
sulted and the information derived from them blended with 
the results of a large experience and extensive observation, 
condensed into the smallest space compatible with perspi- 
cuity, and made applicable to the circumstances by which 
the farmers of Georgia are surrounded. 

Reference has been made to "Flint on Milch Cows 
and Dairy Farming," "Youatt & Martin on Cattle," 
"American Cattle," by Allen; "American Cattle Doc- 
tor," by Dadd; "How to Select a Cow/' by Willis 
P. Hazard; "Practical Butter Book, " by Willard ; "The 
Dairy Cow — Ayrshire," by Sturtevant ; "Practical Dairy 
Husbandry," by Willard; "Cattle, their Breeds, Man- 
agement, and Diseases," by Youatt; "Soiling Cattle," 
by Quincy; "American Dairying," by Arnold; " Grasses 
and Forage Plants," by Flint ; and Howard's " Manual of 
the Cultivation of Grasses and Forage Plants." Free use 
has been made also of such illustrations found in these works 
as suited the purpose of this. This method is taken of 
making proper acknowledgments for assistance derived 
from these works, which are recommended to those who 
desire to make a thorough study of the subjects on which 
they treat. 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



CHAPTER I. 

QUESTIONS ON CATTLE EAISING IN GEORGIA. 

The following questions were sent to stock-breeders in 
every county in the State for the purpose of collecting 
facts from their experience and observation : — 

1. What distinct breeds of cattle have you tested? 

2. Which have proved most profitable? 

3. What crosses have you tested ? 

4. Which have proved most profitable ? 

5. How many cattle do you keep ? 

6. What kind do you breed at this time ? 

7. What breed or cross have you found most profitable 

for beef? 

8. What breed or cross gives the largest yield of milk ? 

9. What breed or cross gives the largest yield of butter? 

10. What breed or cross do you recommend for general 

purposes, or combination — for beef and dairy ? 

11. Give the results of any experiments that have been 

made in your county in the production of cheese ? 

12. What is the annual average cost, per head, of keeping 

cattle in your county ? 

13. What per cent, per annum, on the investment and 

annual cost of keeping, do they pay ? 



6 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [140] 

14. What is the average daily yield of milk to the cow ? 

15. What is the average quantity of milk, in pounds or 

quarts, required to make a pound of butter ? 

16. Give the results of any experiments that you have 

made, to test the effects of different kinds and com- 
binations of food, on the flow of milk, and the 
quantity and quality of butter? 

17. What is the average price at which butter sells in your 

county ? 

18. What is the average price per pound, net, at which 

beef sells in your county? 

19. What is the average price per pound, gross, at which 

beef sells in your county? 

20. What is the average weight of beef cattle, as they are 

sold in your county ? 

21. What is the average price at which milch cows sell in 

your county ? Report also maximum and minimum 
prices. 

22. What summer pasturage have your cattle ? 

23. Give the results of experiments, if any, in your county 

in soiling cattle. 

24. Give the results of experiments in tethering out cattle 

on grass ? 

25. How do you rank Bermuda grass as pasture for cattle ? 

26. Do you feed your cattle in winter ? 

27. If so, on what do you feed them principally? 

28. How long do they require it? 

29. If not fed, on what do they subsist during winter? 

30. What crop yields the largest amount of forage for 

winter food at the least cost ? 

31. What for feeding green in summer? 

32. Do you pen your cattle at night ? 

33. Do you pen them on cultivable land, or in permanent 

pens in which the manure is saved to be hauled out ? 

34. Give facts as to the area annually fertilized by a given 

number of cattle, so as to double the crop ? 



[141] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 7 

35. Give facts as to the results of soiling in the production 

of manure? 

36. Give facts as to results attained in crops produced 

from manure saved from cattle. 

37. Give facts as to the quantity of manure saved per head 

from cattle penned, under shelter, with the usual 
mixture of litter. 

38. Give the results of experiments in dairy farming — 

cost, yield, and profits. 

39. What diseases have proved most destructive to cattle 

in your county? 

40. What remedies have been successfully used ? Describe 

each disease and its remedy. 

41. What per cent, of cattle in your county are annually 

lost by disease ? 

42. What breed or cross gives the best work oxen for 

farm use ? 

43. Have you used beef, corned or pickled, as a substitute 

for bacon on the farm ? 

44. If so, give the result of your experience as to its 

economy. 

45. Do you select heifers to be reserved for milch cows, 

with reference to the " escutcheon" or "milk 
mirror," according to the Guenon system ? 

46. What has been the result of your observation as to 

the correctness of the sign as indicating milking 
properties ? 

47. At what age do your heifers commence to breed with 

best results? — for dairy purposes? At what for 
beef? 

48. To what age do you find it profitable to keep milch 

cows? 

49. What is the per cent, of increase per annum in calves, 

on the number of cows kept? 

50. Do you allow the calves to suck their mothers, or do 

you raise them by hand from their birth ? 



8 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [142] 

51. Which plan has given better results ? 

52. What are the principal obstacles to successful cattle 

raising in your county ? 

53. What remedies do you suggest ? 

54. Give any other information in your possession, that 

may be of value to the farmers of Georgia. 



CHAPTER II. 

FACTS ELICITED FROM THE QUESTIONS ON CATTLE 
RAISING IN GEORGIA. 

The following breeds are reported as having been tested 
to a limited extent, viz,: 

Short Horn, Devon, Ayrshire, Hereford, Brahmin and 
Jersey, the Devon and Jersey being the only ones that 
have been tested to any extent as thoroughbreds. There 
are only a few herds of Devons and only about two dozen 
herds of Jerseys. The great majority of tests, however, 
have been limited to the introduction of thoroughbred 
males which were crossed upon the common cows. 

In fact, therefore, the Devons and Jerseys are the only 
breeds proper which have been tested to any extent as 
such, the test of others having been confined principally 
to their grades. There have been no thorough compara- 
tive tests of the different breeds to ascertain which is best 
adapted to the farm in different parts of the State, the 
readiness with which sales of the offspring could be made, 
having generally been the controlling influence in deter- 
mining the variety kept by the principal breeders. 

There has been to some extent comparative tests of 
grades, but these have been too general in their character 
to afford the data necessary to the formation of intelligent 



£143] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 9 

opinions of their comparative merits and profits. Few 
simultaneous tests have been made under circumstances 
which enabled the breeder to keep accurate records of the 
cost, yield and profits of the different breeds, crosses or 
grades, and hence the reports of ' ' which have proved most 
profitable " being based upon mere casual observations of 
tests, made probably at considerable intervals of time, are 
mere opinions, and not absolute facts. The opinion, how- 
ever, is almost unanimous in favor of the pure breeds and 
their grades as improvements upon the common stock. 

The average number of cattle kept by the correspon- 
dents is twenty-nine, and with few exceptions they are now 
breeding either grades or common stock, known as '* na- 
tives." They report grades of Jersey, Devon, Short-Horn, 
Ayrshire, Brahmin, Hereford, the crosses of some of these; 
and a few the thoroughbred Jersey, Devon, Ayrshire or 
Short-Horn. 

A few report a little cheese made for family use, but 
none for market. 

The average annual cost per head of keeping cattle is 
live dollars. This varies from nothing in Southern Georgia 
to as high as thirty dollars in one instance in North Geor- 
gia. Where the high cost is reported, reference is made to 
milch cows, which are fed through the larger part of the 
year. A large majority of those who report any cost at 
all, range from two to five dollars per head. 

They report an average annual profit per annum of forty 
per cent, upon the investment and the annual cost of keep- 
ing cattle. The average daily yield of milk, per cow, for 
the whole State, is reported at five quarts ; and the average 
quantity of milk required to make one pound of butter is 
reported at ten quarts. 

The average price received for butter per pound is twenty 
cents. 

The average price per pound of beef sold from the farm 
is, net, five cents ; gross, two and a quarter cents, 



10 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [144] 

The average net weight of beef cattle, as sold from the 
farm, is reported at three hundred and forty-two pounds. 

The average price at which milch cows sell in the State, 
is reported at $18.32, the reports ranging from $8.00 to 
$100 00, as minima and maxima prices. 

The maximum is for common cows giving extraordinary 
yields of milk, or for thoroughbreds. 

The minimum is reported from those sections where but 
little attention is paid to milch cows, as such, but where 
the principal attention is given to the production of beef. 

For summer pasturage, the native grasses, embracing 
wire grass, broom sedge, Bermuda,* crab grass, and other 
varieties of less note, are used. 

Many report the " range," which means that their cattle 
run out during summer on the commons and in the woods, 
some of which afford very superior pasturage during the 
late spring and ear]y summer months, and, except in cases 
of severe drouth, throughout the season. 

A few only report inclosed pastures of clover, orchard 
grass and herds grass. 

All who have utilized Bermuda grass concur in the opin- 
ion that it is unsurpassed for summer pasturage, a large 
majority reporting it "the best." 

Very few have experimented with soiling or tethering 
cattle, but those who have tried either generally report 
favorably as to results. 

Milch cows and calves are fed during the winter in every 
section of the State from one to six months, according to 
latitude, but in Middle and Southern Georgia dry cattle 
are fed but little, especially where they have access to the 
wild cane along the creek and river bottoms. 

Among the substances reported as fed to cattle in winter 
are shucks, corn-fodder, oats, straw from small grain and 

* Bermuda, though not a native, is generally so classed because it 
grows spontaneously. 



[145] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 11 

rice, cane-fodder, cotton-seed, turnips, peas and pea-vines, 
barley cut green, crab-grass hay, German millet hay, clo- 
ver and grass hay, rice flour and sweet potatoes. 

When not fed, they have the range of the whole planta- 
tion except the small grain fields, and subsist upon the 
gleanings of the fields and upon the wild cane and grass 
about the creeks. 

In answer to the question, "What crop yields the 
largest amount of forage for winter food, at the least cost?" 
a large majority report drilled corn ; some report pea-vines, 
some crab grass hay ; some, the millets ; some, turnips, 
and others clovers and the cultivated grasses. 

For feeding green in summer, the majority report in 
favor of cat-tail millet; some in favor of drilled corn; 
some, peavines, and others clover. 

All the correspondents report penning their cattle at 
night during the whole or a part of the year; some on 
cultivable lands, and some in permanent pens from which 
the manure is collected and carted out to the fields. 

None have conducted accurate experiments as to the 
amount of manure annually saved per head, or the area 
annually fertilized by a given number of cattle so as to 
double the crop. All, however, testify very strongly as 
to the great value of cow manure, many giving it a decided 
preference over that from horses on account of its conserv- 
ative action upon summer crops in our climate. 

No accurate experiments as to the "cost, yield and 
profits " of dairy farming have been made, and, except in 
the immediate vicinity of the cities, no strictly dairy farm- 
ing has been done. 

Forty correspondents report no destructive disease ; forty- 
one report murrain or redwater ; many make no report at 
all on the subject. Some report no disease since 1860. 
Others report no disease since the black tongue prevailed 
in 1856. There is perhaps no country in which cattle are 
more remarkably exempt from disease than in Georgia. 



12 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [146] 

The annual loss by disease in the State is reported at 
4J per cent., but many of the most intelligent correspond- 
ents say that many cases of death which are attributed to 
disease are the result of neglect, and often of starvation, 
during winter. 

Very few have given any attention to the selection of 
heifers to be reserved as milch cows with reference to the 
" escutcheon" or " milk mirror/' according to the Guenon 
system. Those who have experimented in such selection, 
glmost without exception express the opinion that its indi- 
cations are generally correct. 

Quite a number say they make no selection, but reserve 
all of the heifer calves as breeders. This is especially true 
of the southeastern portion of the State, where large herds 
are kept on what is known as the wire grass range. 

Heifers are generally allowed to breed at will and com- 
mence at from two to three years of age. 

Milch cows are kept in use from ten to fifteen years. 

The per cent, of increase in calves per annum, on the 
number of cows kept, is sixty-five. 

Very few report raising calves by hand. Those who 
have tried it, however, report in its favor, almost without 
exception, and many who do not practice it say it gives 
better results than allowing them to suck their mothers. 

In answer to the question, " What are the principal ob- 
stacles to successful cattle raising in your county ?" nearly 
all of the correspondents say none, except neglect on the 
part of farmers to supply the necessary pasturage and to 
bestow proper attention upon their stock. 

The rearing of cattle being merely incidental to other 
more important branches of agriculture, on the part of 
most farmers in the State, but little attention is bestowed 
upon them further than to secure a supply of milk and 
butter for family use, and the cattle generally being allowed 
to run out on the commons, the owners of the cows have 



[147] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 13 

no choice of the sires of their calves. Occasionally, enter- 
prising breeders are so generous as to turn improved bulls 
out for the public good, to the material advantage of the 
stock of the neighborhood, but such are exceptional cases. 



CHAPTER III. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

While we have no authentic history of the early usages 
in the management of cattle, we have both in sacred and 
profane history repeated mention of the ownership of cattle. 
In the fourth chapter of Genesis, 20th verse, we read that 
Jabel "was the father of such as dwell in tents, and of 
such as have cattle." It would seem, therefore, that the 
owners of cattle in that day, which was during the lifetime 
of Adam, led a pastoral life and dwelt in tents. Later, 
after Jacob, the most noted cattle-breeder of ancient times 
of whom we have any record, had left Laban, whose herds 
he had tended for twenty years, we read in Genesis, chap- 
ter 33, 17th verse, " And Jacob journeyed toSuccoth, and 
built him a house, and made booths for his cattle. " Succoth 
has about the latitude of Savannah, Ga., and yet this vete- 
ran stock-breeder saw proper to make " booths " for his 
cattle. 

Though Abel is spoken of as " a keeper of sheep," the 
word sheep is supposed to be used as a generic term repre- 
senting different kinds of domestic animals. 

It is a well settled fact that the use of cattle as domestic 
animals is coeval with man's existence on this globe, and 
that in the early stages of man's development and progress 
towards civilized life, cattle have been largely relied upon 
as a source both of food and profit. 



14 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [148] 

Profane history is equally clear in representing the do- 
mestication of cattle, since they were objects of worship 
among the Egyptians and of veneration among the In- 
dians. The traditions of the Celtic nations, as well as the 
sculptures of the Egyptians, place cattle among the earli- 
est productions, and represent them as constituting, as in 
the days of Abraham and Jacob, one of the principal ele- 
ments of the wealth of nations and individuals, and con. 
tinued so until agriculture became more generally practiced, 
when less attention was given them, until within the last 
two centuries, when they received more attention, and im- 
provement commenced. 

When Julius Caesar invaded Britain, he found the Britons 
neglecting tillage and living principally upon milk and 
flesh. 

The unsettled political condition of the country at that 
time, and the consequent insecurity of property, made that 
class of property which could be removed to a place of 
security with the greatest expedition most desirable. Cattle 
being of this class, and but little tillage practiced, the Brit- 
ons relied mainly upon them for food, not only during the 
baronial period, but even after one sovereign reigned over 
the whole kingdom. Contests at arms being still of fre- 
quent occurrence, and fixed property consequently inse- 
cure, the rearing of cattle continued to be the leading pur- 
suit of the people. 

When the political condition of the country became more 
settled, agriculture received more attention and the rearing 
of cattle less, until within the last two centuries, when a 
few breeders commenced improving their stock by judicious 
crossing and selection. 

There are two remarkable facts in connection with the 
history of cattle in England ; 

1st. The number of breeds with distinctive characteris- 
tics in a territory of such limited extent. 



[149] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 15 

2d. That the first classification of cattle should have had 
reference entirely to their horns. 

The former was perhaps due principally to selection and 
close breeding without intermixture from other sections, as 
well as to the variety of climate and pasturage in different 
sections of the kingdom. Indeed, we are told by Youatt 
that the Glamorganshire farmers " admitted of no mixture 
of foreign blood." 

On this subject Mr. Youatt says : 

" The breeds of cattle, as they are now found in Great 
Britain, are almost as various as the soil of the different 
districts, or the fancies of the breeders. They have, how- 
ever, been very conveniently classed according to the com- 
parative size of the horns ; the long horns, originally from 
Lancashire, much improved by Mr. Bakewell, of Leices- 
tershire, and established through the greater part of the 
midland counties ; the short horns, mostly cultivated in the 
northern counties and in Lincolnshire, and many of them 
found in every part of the kingdom where the farmer 
attends much to his dairy or a large supply of milk is 
wanted ; and the middle horns, not derived from a mixture 
of the two preceding, but a distinct, valuable and beautiful 
breed, inhabiting the north of Devon, the east of Sussex, 
Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk, 
and with somewhat different character, the cattle of the 
Scottish and the Welsh mountains. The Alderney, with 
her crumpled horn, is found on the Southern coast, and in 
smaller numbers in getlemen's parks and pleasure grounds 
everywhere ; while the polled, or hornless cattle, prevail in 
Suffolk and Norfolk, and in Galloway, whence they were 
first derived." 

The middle horns seem to have been the original breed 
of British cattle, the long horns of Irish extraction, the polls 
though they have "existed in certain districts from time 
Immemorial, were probably an accidental variety." 



16 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [150] 

The short horns lay no claim to this honor, having had 
their origin in careful selection, a little more than a century 
ago. 

The improvement in the form, beauty and adaptation of 
cattle to the uses of man during the last century has been 
most remarkable, and has been effected by careful and 
skillful selection of breeding animals and judicious crossing. 
Indeed the different varieties have been so bred as to 
develop peculiar characteristics and adaptation to specific 
purposes, as well as to combine such characteristics into 
one harmonious whole in the same breed. 

IN AMERICA. 

The first introduction of cattle was by the Spaniards, 
about 1525, into Mexico; the next into Virginia in 1610 
and 1611 from England. They were introduced into New 
York from Holland in 1625, and into Massachusetts from 
England in 1624. The Dutch settled New Jersey in 1624, 
and the Swedes, Delaware in 1627, and brought their cattle 
with them. In 1631,1632 and 1633, cattle were imported 
into New Hampshire from Denmark. English cattle were 
brought into Maryland in 1633, into North Carolina in 
1660, into South Carolina in 1670, and into Pennsylvania 
in 1682. Georgia was not settled until 1732, and there is 
no record of the introduction of cattle at that time. It is 
probable that the first that were brought into the State 
came with settlers from other colonies. 



[151] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 17 



CHAPTER IV, 

DIFFERENT BREEDS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 

Before proceeding to the discussion of the different breeds 
it will be well to define definitely some of the terms which 
will occur in this chapter, 

A breed is a race, class or kind of animals, having cer- 
tain peculiarities of form and other characteristics different 
from others of the same family. 

Thoroughbred animals are those which have been bred 
in a direct line sufficiently long to establish a fixed type- 
which they have the power of transmitting with uniformity 
to their offspring. 

Full-Blood. — In Kentucky the results of the sixth 
cross are called full-blood. This should not be confounded 
with thoroughbred^ as an animal that is called full-blooded 
is only 63-64 of the blood of the thoroughbred used in 
the cross. Thus the first cross of a thoroughbred bull on 
a " native" cow, produces a half breed — the next cross of 
the thoroughbred on the half breed produces 3-4, the third 
cross of thoroughbred, on the 3-4 produces 7-8, on 7-8, 
15-16, on 15-16, 31-32, on 31-32, 63-64, which is called 
full-blood. The uninitiated are liable to be, and sometimes 
have been, imposed upon by confounding full-blood with 
thoroughbred. 

Cross-bred animals are the offspring of a thoroughbred 
male of one breed out of a thoroughbred female of another. 

Grades are the offspring of a thoroughbred male or 
female, and what are known as common stock, which belong 
to no particular breed ; or any other than thoroughbred or 
cross-bred; 
2 



18 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[152] 



High grades are those having a preponderance of pure 
Hood, such as the offspring of a thoroughbred bull out of 
a half-blood cow, which is called three-fourths. Full-blood 
animals are high grades. 

Low grades embrace half breeds and all the gradations 
below, so long as the impress of the thoroughbred is 
visible. 

" Common Stock," "Scrubs" or "Natives" are those 
which have been indiscriminately bred until there is no 
recognizable trace of any breed and no uniformity of type. 
To this class belong nearly all of the cattle in Georgia. 

The only breeds which are bred pure in America, are 
the Devon, Durham or Short-Horn, Ayrshire, Jersey, 
Alderney, Holstein or Dutch, and Hereford. In Europe, 
the Angus Polled, the Galloway, and the Scotch Highland 
are highly esteemed, but, as yet, none of consequence have 
been imported into and bred pure in this country. We 
have polled cattle in America, and in Georgia, but none 
have been bred pure on this side of the Atlantic. 




-_^^ 



Devon Bull. 



DEVONS. 

This beautiful race of cattle is of such great antiquity 
that there is no record of their origin ; some claiming that 
they date as far back as the Roman conquest. 



[153] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 19 

The Devons occupy the relation to other breeds of cattle 
that the Southdown does to other breeds of sheep, and the 
Essex to other breeds of hogs. No other breed is more 
fixed in its type, none more distinct, none of greater 
antiqyuity, and none with more points of excellence as a 
combination animal. There are some that excel them as 
beef producers, others as butter producers, and others still 
at the pail ; but no other breed equals them in symmetry 
of form, uniformity of type, or a& combination beef, dairy, 
and work animals. Allen in his work on American cattle, 
describes the typical Devon as follows : 

"The head, lean in flesh, is rather short, the forehead 
broad, the face slightly dishing, and tapering gracefully to 
a fine, clean yellow muzzle. The eye, bright, prominent, 
and surrounded by a ring of orange colored, or yellow 
skin. The horn, upright and curved outward, cream 
colored, black at the tips, graceful in its setting, and rather 
long, for the size of the animal. The ear, well set, and 
lively in action. The neck, on a level (in the bull slightly 
arching) with the head and shoulders; full at its junction 
with the breast, clean, and without dewlap. The shoulders, 
fine, open (somewhat slanting, like those of the horse), 
and on a level with the back. The neck-vein, full, and 
smooth. The arm, delicate, and the leg below the knee, 
small, terminating in a clean, dull brown, and somewhat 
striped hoof. The brisket, full, and projecting well forward. 
The crops, well filled, and even with the shoulders. The 
back, straight from the shoulders to the tail. The ribs* 
springing out roundly from the back, and running low 
down, to enclose a lull chest, and setting well back towards 
the hips, giving a snug neat belly. The flanks full and low. 
The hips wide, and level with the back. The loin full and 
level. The thigh well fleshed and full, the lower part some- 
what thin, and gracefully tapering to the hock ; the leg 
below, small, flat and sinewy. The twist (the space be- 



30 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [154] 

tween the thighs) well let down and open. The tail taper- 
ing like a drum-stick, and terminating with a brush of white 
hair. The color, invariably cherry red, sometimes showing 
a lighter, or deeper shade, and the skin, under the hair, a 
rich cream color. The bull, of course, will show the 
stronger and masculine character of his sex, while the ox 
will develop the finer points of his condition, and the cow, 
all the delicacy and refinement belonging to her race. " 

The earliest records of the Devon as a breed show that 
from time immemorial they were bred in the Northern 
part of Devonshire, whence the name of North Devon. 

They have since spread into other counties of England 
and been imported in considerable numbers to America. 
Unlike other breeds of more modern origin, there seems 
to have been no infusion of other blood of which there is 
either history or tradition. By selection, their size has 
been somewhat increased, their beef producing qualities 
improved, and their milking qualities diminished thereby. 

AS WORK OXEN, 

All things considered they have no superior for ordinary 
farm use. They are muscular, active and durable. Their 
uniformity of color and type causes them to match readily 
and when turned off for beef they fatten readily and pro- 
duce beef of fine quality. 

AS A MILCH COW, 

The Devon may be classed as medium in the quantity 
and superior in the quality of yield. The yield depends, 
of course, somewhat upon the object for which they have 
been bred. In herds in which selection has been made 
with a view to the development of milking properties they 
have made good records, while in others in which the pro- 
duction of beef was the leading object they have de- 
teriorated as milkers. 



[-155] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



21: 




They are docile, easily kept, managed without difficulty 
and so tidy in form and appearance that the owner has 
every inducement to bestow proper attention upon them. 

A few parties have been breeding the Devon in Georgia 
for years with satisfactory results. Correspondents from 
Burke county speak in especially favorable terms of the 
Devon. Mr. J. B. Jones, of that county, says: "For 
Middle, South, Southeast, and Southwest Georgia, I would 
breed only Devons for any and all purposes/' 

Dr. W. B, Jones, of the same county, says: " Grades 
of any good breed are more profitable than natives; 
thoroughbred cattle, of any class or breed, means thorough 
keeping and feeding. Grades are much hardier than na- 
tives, and for milk, beef or work oxen, Devons have proved 
to me to be the cattle fitted for my especial latitude and 
climate." 

A large number of common cattle, especially in Middle 
Georgia, which are known as ' ' red English" are thought 
to be the result of a remote cross of the Devon on the 
" Natives." It is proper to say that the " red English" 
are highly esteemed wherever they are found in Georgia 



22 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [156 J 

for their good qualities at the pail, on the shambles or under 
the yoke. 

The Devon breed of cattle is of such antiquity, and con- 
sequently so firmly fixed in type, that it gives a very de- 
cided impress upon its offspring even when crossed upon 
very inferior animals, and hence the improvement resulting 
from their cross is perceptible even after the source of the 
improvement has been forgotten. In speaking of tht 
Devon, 

AS A BEEF ANIMAL, 

Allen says : " We must place the Devon in the first class, 
for fineness of flesh and delicacy of flavor. Its compact 
bone gives it the one, and its rapid and thorough develop- 
ment under good feeding gives it the other. In growth 
and size it matures early, equal to the Shorthorn, and its 
meat is finer grained, juicy and nicely marbled (the lean 
and fat intermixed). 

In the London markets, Devon beef bears the highest 
price of any except the Highland Scott — usually a penny 
a pound over that of the larger breeds, and our American 
butchers quickly pick the Devons from a drove, when they 
can find them, before most others. They feed well, take 
on flesh rapidly, and in the quality of their flesh, are all 
that can be desired. " 

The first importation of Devons of which there is any 
record was made by Messrs. Caton and Patterson, of Balti- 
more, Maryland, in 1817. There have been various im- 
portations since, but they have never excited the enthu- 
siasm that the Shorthorns have in some sections and the 
Jerseys in others. 



[157] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



23 




'i/nV£AfLAMrS«CA ~*~ 



Jersey Heifer, Lady Babon; Herd Register, 10,109; Property of 
R. Peters, Atlanta, Ga. 



CHANNEL ISLAND CATTLE— ALDERNEY, JERSEY, 
AND GUERNSEY. 

This valuable breed of dairy cattle is supposed to have 
come originally from Normandy in the Northern part of 
France. They were formerly called Alderneys from the 
fact that the first that were introduced into England were 
sent from the Island of Alderney by some officers of tke 
British army as presents to friends in England. 

From this circumstance all of the channel island cattle 
were for a time called Alderneys, notwithstanding the fact 
that twice as many are exported from Jersey as from 
Guernsey, while very few are exported from Alderney. 

Jersey contains 39,580 acres, 25,000 of which are in cal- 
vation. Its population in 1861 was 56,078. Guernsey has 
15,560 acres, 10,000 of which are in cultivation. Its popu- 
lation in 1861 was 29,780. Alderney has only 2,500 
acres of which 1,500 are cultivated. Its population in 



24 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [158] 

1861 was 4, 933. The impropriety of the Island of Alderney 
giving name to the cattle from all of the islands is there- 
fore apparent. The cattle from Alderney and Guernsey 
are somewhat larger in size and coarser in type than those 
from Jersey. So few, however, are reared on Alderney 
that they are hardly worthy of consideration. 

The large majority of Channel Island cattle now in 
America are either importations from the Island of Jersey 
or their descendants, and the name of Jerseys is now often 
applied to all the Channel Island cattle, as Alderney was 
at first. 

The Alderneys, Guernseys and Jerseys are all remarka- 
ble for the richness of their milk and the large quantity and 
superior quality of the butter produced from it. 

With few exceptions, the importations into Georgia have 
been of the Jerseys proper. They are emphatically butter 
cows, and are no doubt the " best breed " for Georgia 
where the production of "gilt-edged " butter is the object 
of the breeder, provided he is willing to bestow the neces- 
sary attention upon them. If the sale of milk is the object^ 
other breeds will prove more profitable to the dairyman, 
but even in that event it may be advantageous to keep 
several Jerseys to every eight or ten of other breeds to 
give richness and color to the whole of the milk. 

There are some very fine herds of Jerseys in Georgia, 
and the number is being rapidly increased by purchase 
from the best herds of the Middle and Eastern States. 
The great docility of Jersey cows peculiarly fits them to 
become family pets, and their marked difference of type 
from the common stock of the country, and their blood- 
like appearance, impresses the observer with their purity 
and superiority of breeding. There is a characteristic 
expression of meekness and gentleness of disposition about 
the Jersey cows possessed, by no other breed. 



[159] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



25 




Jersey Bull, "Babon of Belmont;" Herd Register 4,821; Property of 
R. Pbtebs, Atlanta, Ga. 

Taking the best herds seen in this country, which proba- 
bly have as high qualities of breeding and excellence as 
those on their native Island, some of which, indeed, were 
direct importations, the following description will enable 
even the novice to recognize the thoroughbred Jersey : 

The head is fine and tapering, muzzle black or dark- 
brown, sometimes yellowish with a ring of lighter color 
encircling it and shading off to a darker color towards the 
head ; the jaws clean, throat tapering and free from dew- 
lap. The neck is usually a little drooped, sometimes 
"ewe-necked," but many of the best specimens now 
straight from the rump to the horns. There is a peculiar 
mealy appearance about the lighter colors on the face, 
belly, legs and twist, gradually shading off into a darker, 
smoky hue above. The ears are rather large for the size 
of the animal, and hang off from the head in a peculiar 



26 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [160] 

manner — they should be of a rich orange color within. 
The horns curved inward, small, waxy towards the base 
*and black towards the ends. There is a peculiar deer-like, 
blooded appearance about the head. The shoulders are 
wide and prominent, tapering down to delicate, trim legs. 
Fore quarters somewhat thin, and ribs a little flat and defi- 
cient in arch ; belly deep and large ; hips wide apart ; 
thighs thin, twist wide, affording room for a capacious 
udder, which is square, reaching well forward, teats rather 
small, but standing well apart and tapering gracefully. The 
modern Jerseys have much more symmetry than those of 
twenty years ago, the best specimens having the peculiar 
wedge shape, tapering from their hips forward, so indica- 
tive of good milkers. 

The color varies with the fancy of breeders, from a light 
fawn to a smoky gray and even black, sometimes splashed 
with white, but the skin should be invariably yellow. 

The bull will of course have the masculine features pe- 
culiar to his sex, and though the cows are noted for their 
docility and amiability, the bull is usually vicious at two 
years of age and often dangerous as he grows older. 

A Jersey ox is seldom seen as yet in this country, and 
though they may feed well and make a moderately fair 
quality of beef, no one would seek the Jersey for either 
work or beef animals. Their peculiar use is for butter 
production, in which they excel. As a pet in a gentle- 
man's lawn, or in a family dairy, they are unrivaled, or 
even in a dairy the object of which is to make high-priced 
butter, they excel any other breed ; but the chief profit 
at present from breeding thoroughbred Jerseys is derived 
from the sale of young animals. They have not been suffi- 
ciently tested in Georgia to determine to what extent 
they are adapted for general purposes of the farm, but it 
is believed that a cross of Jersey bulls on our common 
cows will materially improve the cattle of the State, espe- 
cially in butter production. 



[161] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE, 



27 



BUTTER YIELD OF JERSEY COW EUROTAS. 

This remarkable cow, Eurotas, H. B. Register, 2454, 
has been on trial nine months and six days to August 9th, 
during which time she has yielded, by actual and accurate 
weight, 706 pounds and 3 ounces of butter. The test was 
commenced on the 10th of November, 1879 ; the last 
report was to August 15th. Her largest yield was June 
15th and 16th, when she yielded in the two days six pounds 
and six ounces, or three pounds and three ounces per day. 
It will be observed that the greater part of the test was 
made during the winter and spring when she had no green 
food. 

The high price at which the thoroughbred Jerseys sell 
will, for some time at least, prevent their very general pur- 
chase by farmers in moderate circumstances. 




Short Horn Heifer of Beef Strain. 



SHORT HORN, OR DURHAM. 

This magnificent breed of cattle has, during the present 
century, received more attention in England and America 
than all others together. They seem to have originated as 
such in Durham county, England (whence the name, Dur- 



28 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [162] 

ham), on the river Tees (whence the name,Teeswater), which 
divides the county of Durham from that of York. They 
are supposed to have come originally from the northern 
part of Denmark, at the time of the conquest by the Danes 
of the northeastern coast of England. 

They seem, therefore, to have had the same origin as 
the Dutch or Holstein cattle, now so celebrated for their 
large yield of milk. 

As early as 1738, Milbank and Croft were noted as 
cattle-breeders, but not until the time of the Collings, 
about 1780, was the great merit of the short horns brought 
prominently before the public. Mr. Charles Colling 
adopted an efficient method of advertising the breed, and 
especially his own herd. 

He reared an ox of extraordinary size, and sold him, 
when five years old to a Mr. Bulmer, to be taken "around 
the country for exhibition." His live weight was then 
3,024 pounds. After traveling with him for five weeks, 
Mr. Bulmer sold the ox to Mr. Day, who traveled with 
him nearly six years. He was butchered when eleven 
years of age, after he was much reduced by the effects of 
an accident- — the dislocation of his hip bone — and weighed, 
carcass, tallow and hide, 2, 620 pounds. Mr. Colling after- 
wards fed a thoroughbred heifer, which was exhibited m 
the same way through the country. She was known as 
the "White Heifer that traveled." When slaughtered, 
her live weight was estimated at 2,300 pounds. 

Through the exhibition of these remarkable cattle, public 
attention was directed to the merits of the Short Horns 
and to Mr. Charles Colling as a breeder, who thus acquired 
such celebrity that he soon realized a fortune from the 
sale of his stock. 

The first importation of Short Horns into America, of 
which we have record, was made by a Mr. Miller, of Vir- 
ginia, in 1783. These were celebrated as milking stock. 



[163] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 29 

Some of the decendants of these were taken to Kentucky 
in 1797 by Mr. Patton, after whose name they were long 
called the " Patton Stock." Others were carried to the 
Morefield valley along the south branch of the Potomac, a 
fine grass region, where they became very celebrated. 

They are popular in all the fine grass regions of the 
United States where beef is the principal object of the 
breeder. 

Some families of them which have been bred with special 
reference to milk production, have given satisfactory results 
as dairy animals, but the Short Horn is essentially a beef 
animal, no other breed that has been introduced into Amer- 
ica, except the Hereford, making any pretense to rivalry 
in this respect. As a combination animal for beef and 
milk, however the Short Horns far surpass the Herefords, 
the latter making, however, superior work oxen. 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

The Short Horns may be divided into two classes ; beef 
and dairy stock. The early importations were selected 
with reference to their milking properties, and some of 
them were quite celebrated for their large yields. In the 
Eastern states, Virginia and East Tennessee, the Short 
Horns have been bred mainly to the dairy type, while in 
Kentucky and the Western states they have been bred 
chiefly for beef. 

Where there is a full bite of grass, they make superior 
dairy animals, and, when turned off, have the advantage 
over the smaller dairy breeds, in feeding more readily and 
affording a larger yield of fine beef. 

There are few farms in Georgia at present, however, on 
which the pasturage is sufficiently luxuriant to justify the 
hope of satisfactory results from the use of Short Horns ; 
the more hardy and active small breeds are better suited t© 
our present condition. 



30 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [164] 

When more attention shall be paid to cultivating the 
grasses in North Georgia, the Short Horns may be profit- 
ably employed in that section of the State, and their grades 
in other sections. 

In those states of the Union in which beef is the princi- 
pal object of the herdsman, the Short Horn of the beef 
type has been bred at the expense of the milking proper- 
ties. The earlier importations having been to the Atlantic 
States, where milk w r as an important consideration, selec- 
tions of imported animals were made wifeh reference to 
their milking properties ; and the selections for breeding 
purposes from their offspring were made with the same 
view. 

The later importations, made after the English breeders, 
stimulated by the increased demand for beef and enticed 
by the natural tendency of the Short Horns to beef pro- 
duction, had bred to that end by the selection of the best 
looking animals for propagating their kind, were mainly 
carried to Kentucky and west of the Ohio river, where 
grass was abundant and beef more marketable than dairy 
products. 

Under the same influences, selections were made of the 
most precocious animals, giving the best promise of beef 
production. 

The influence of selection upon the type of the breed 
has nowhere been more fully illustrated than in the estab- 
lishment and perpetuation of the beef and milking strains 
of Short Horns. 

The early maturity of the Short Horns gives them a de. 
cided advantage over other breeds. A Short Horn bullock 
will make more and better beef at two years of age than 
a native will at four ; but the Short Horn to obtain the best 
development must have abundant food from calfhood to 
maturity. 



[165] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



3.1 




Short Horn Bull. 
Allen thus described the typical Short Horn : 

HEAD. 

"The muzzle fine and yellowish, or drab in color, not 
smoky or black; the face slightly dishing or concave; the 
eye full and bright ; the forehead broad ; the horns show- 
ing no black except at the tips, and standing wide at the 
base, short oval shaped, spreading gracefully out, and then 
curving in with a downward inclination, or turning upward 
with a still further spread (as either form is taken without 
prejudice to purity of blood in the animal), of a waxy col- 
or, and sometimes darker at the tips ; the throat clean, 
without dewlap; the ear sizable, thin and quickly moving; 
the neck full, setting well into the shoulders and breast, 
with a slight pendulous hanging of the skin (not dewlap) 
just at the brisket ; the shoulders nearly straight, and wide 
at the tops ; the shoulder-points, or neck-vein, wide and 
full ; the brisket, broad, low, and projecting well forward, 
sometimes so much as almost to appear a deformity; the 



32 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. P 6(>] 

arm gracefully tapering to the knee, and below that a leg 
of fine bone, ending with a well rounded foot ; the ribs 
round and full (giving free play to vigorous lungs), and 
running back well towards the hips ; the crops full, but as 
a rule scarcely equal in fullness to the Devons ; the chine 
and back straight from the shoulders to the tail; the hips 
uncommonly wide, and level with the back and loin ; the 
loin full and level ; the rumps wide ; the tail set on a level 
with the back, small and tapering ; the thigh full and heav- 
ily fleshed ; the twist wide ; the flank low and full ; the 
hock, or gembrel joint, standing straight (as with a horse), 
or nearly so; the hind legs, like the fore ones, clean and 
sinewy, and the foot small. 

The dairy strain have less of the rotundity of form than 
the beef strain, the cows tapering well from rear to front ; 
but when they are turned off they feed readily, and make 
a large quantity of excellent beef. 

The beauty of the Short Horn as a beef animal consists 
in the small amount of waste in the carcass, either in infer- 
ior flesh or in bone, and in the large amount of superior 
flesh on the most valuable parts. 

In color, thoroughbred Short Horns are found pure white, 
deep red, and with every conceivable mingling of the two, 
according to the fancy of different breeders. 

AS A DAIRY COW 

The Short Horns have strong advocates, and where bred 
with a view to the development of milking properties, they 
have made good records. 

Being large, they of course consume more food per head 
than smaller milking breeds, but have the advantage of 
yielding a large quanty of good beef when no longer needed 
at the pail. 

Allen says : 'That the inherent quality of abundant milk- 
ing exists in Short Horns, no intelligent breeder of them 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE* S3 

need doubt; our own observation in more than thirty years 
^experience with hundreds of them, first and last, under 
our own eyes, is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in 
thoroughbreds and grades. " 

Few men in America, if any, have had so large and 
varied experience and observation as Mr. Allen, and his 
testimony is therefore valuable for the section in which he 
lived (New York). There is no question, however, of the 
fact that the cross of the Short Horn bull on native cows 
in Georgia has invariably resulted in an improvement of 
the stock, both as to milking properties and beef-production. 

The effects of the introduction of a Short Horn bull into 
neighborhoods in Georgia, have been observed in the im- 
provement of the stock of the neighborhood for many 
years afterwards. This is particularly true where reasona- 
ble attention has been paid to cattle, and the pasturage is 
good. In some portions of the United States the milking 
qualities have been bred out until good milkers are rare. 
When importations have been made from such herds, there 
has been a deterioration rather than an improvement in 
the milking properties of the stock resulting from the cross, 
while there has been decided increase in size. 

Those in Georgia who desire a cross of the Short Horn, 
should be careful to select from herds that have been bred 
to milk rather than beef, as the former is generally the 
leading object in raising cattle in this State. 

Before purchasing, however, good pasturage must be 
supplied, or the Short Horns will rapidly deteriorate. 



AYBSH1RE& 

The origin of this breed which has become so popular 
for the dairy, seems to be involved in some degree of un- 
certainty. They seem to have had for the foundation of 
the breed the Scotch Kyloe cattle, and improved by crosses 



34 



A* MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



pwj 




Ayrshire Bull. 

of Short Horn and Holderness, and probably with an infu- 
sion of "Dutch" blood. 

Mr. Allen says : " From no other race of cattle, Scotch, 
English or Irish, could the improved Ayrshires get their 
shape, color, and milking qualities combined.** 

They have been bred with special reference to the devel- 
opment of their milking qualities by selecting, for breeding 
purposes, only the offspring of good cows which gave 
promise of developing into good milkers. Allen says : 
"That they are a good breed of cattle, useful, and emi- 
nently qualified for the dairy, and capable of perpetuating 
among themselves their good qualities, are facts now well 
established both in Scotland and America. " 

The first importation into America of which we know 
was made in 1831, and their forty-eight years' trial in this 
country has been quite satisfactory. They are hardy, 
healthy, docile, and eminently adapted to our climate and 
pasturage. They will thrive where the Short Horn or 
Hereford will rapidly decline in size. 

Though their yield of milk is less in our climate than in 
the more moist one of their native Ayrshire in Scotland, 
in proportion to their size they yield more milk than any 



[169] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 35 

other breed except, perhaps, the Dutch, or Holstein. Their 
milk is less rich in cream than that of the Jersey, but it is 
of fair quality and so far exceeds the Jersey in quantity 
that the average yield of butter per cow is fine in quantity 
though inferior in quality to that from the Jerseys. 




Ayrshire Cow. 
DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL AYRSHIRE. 

In the prize essays of the Highland and Agricultural 
Society of Scotland, 1866-7, we find the following descrip- 
tion of the Ayrshire: (i Head short, forehead wide, nose 
fine between the muzzle and eyes. Muzzle moderately 
large; eyes full and lively. Horns, wide set on, inclining, 
upwards, and curving slightly inwards. Neck, long and 
straight from the head to the tip of the shoulder ; free 
from loose skin on the under side, fine at its junction with 
the head, and the muscles symmetrically enlarging towards 
the shoulders, shoulders thin at the top ; brisket light. 
Forequarters thin in front, and gradually increasing in 
depth and thickness backward. Back short and straight ; 
spine well defined especially at shoulders ; short ribs 
arched. Body deep at the flanks ; pelvis, long, broad, and 
straight. Hook loins wide apart, and not much overlaid 
with fat. Thighs deep and broad ; tail long and slender, 



36 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [170] 

and set on level with the back ; legs short, the bones fine, 
and the joints firm. Milk vessel, capacious and extending 
well forward, hinder part broad and firmly attached to the 
body ; the sole or under surface nearly level. Teats, from 
two to two and a half inches in length, equal in thickness, 
and hanging perpendicularly ; their distance apart at the 
sides should be equal to about one-third of the length of 
the vessel, and across to about one-half of the breadth. 
Milk veins well developed ; skin, soft and elastic ; hair, 
soft, close and woolly ; color preferred, brown, or brown 
and white, the colors being distinctly defined." Brown is 
a rather deeper shade than is usually seen in this country. 
Indeed, they are usually described in the herd book as red 
and white, or white and red, as the one or the other color 
predominates, and this depending largely upon the fancy 
of the breeder. 

The well developed Ayrshire cow viewed from the front, 
presents the appearance of a blunted wedge, such is the 
taper from the hips forward. 

They yield readily to kind and gentle treatment, and 
resent harshness with angry gestures. 

They are naturally less amiable than the Jersey cows, 
but respond as readily to kind treatment, while they are 
more disposed to resent unkindness. 

The annual yield of milk in some of the principal Scotch 
dairies, in which Ayrshire cows were kept, is reported at 
from 550 to 1,000 gallons. Ayrshire cattle being of medium 
size and hardy, are well adapted to Georgia farms, where 
a reasonable bite of grass is available ; and are especially 
suited to use in dairy farms near cities, where there is a 
market for milk. 

The cross of the Ayrshire bull upon our native cows 
would rapidly build up dairy herds. 

The fact that Ayrshires have the colors usually seen in 
our common cattle, militates against their introduction, 



[171] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 37 

those not familliar with their type being often suspicious of 
them as thoroughbreds. 

Flint says: "The Ayrshires have been developed to such a 
degree, that they may be said to produce a larger quantity 
of rich milk and butter in proportion to the food consumed 
or the cost of production, than any of the pure-bred races." 

So exclusively did the farmers of Ayrshire breed to milk 
that Aiton says: "The Ayrshire farmers prefer their 
dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads 
and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at 
the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. " 

HEREFOBDS. 

This breed takes its name from Hereford, a county in 
the western part of England, where they are said to have 
originated. 

Their improvement seems to have commenced about 
the middle of the last century. They were formerly of a 
brownish red color with mottled faces. 

The most fashionable color now is pale red with white 
faces, the white often extending along the throat, under the 
brisket and belly, and along the back. The origin of 
the white face is thus accounted for by Mr. Rowlandson, 
in his " Farming of Herefordshire : " 

" About the middle of the last century (1750), the cow- 
man (of the herd of Mr. Tully) came to the hou^e, announc- 
ing as a remarkable fact, that the favorite cow had produced 
a white-faced bull calf. This had never been known to 
have occurred before, and as a curiosity, it was agreed that 
the animal should be kept and reared as a future sire." He 
further remarks that "the progeny of this very bull, became 
celebrated for white faces." 

The Herefords are quite celebrated in England as 
beef producers, and have their advocates in America, but 



40 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [174J 

have not attained to the popularity that other breeds have, 
probably on account of their deficiency in milk production. 
It is an old and well established breed and stamp their type 
in a marked degree upon their progeny. For years after 
the use of a Hereford bull upon the common cows of a* 
neighborhood, the effects of the cross are observable in the 
progeny possessing only one- eighth Hereford blood. Very 
fine Herefords have been introduced into Georgia — not 
enough to give them a fair trial. A bull now in use in 
Clinch county, Ga., is reported to have materially improved 
the size of the cattle in his neighborhood. 

Like the Short Horn, they require a full bite of grass, 
and are hence not well adapted to sections in which natu- 
ral grasses are the only dependence for pasturage. When 
our market facilities for beef increase, and more attention 
is paid to the cultivation of the grasses, the larger breeds 
of beef-producing cattle will become more profitable and 
popular. At present the smaller, milk producing breeds, 
are better adapted to Georgia, and give better satisfaction. 

As beef-producers, the Herefords rival even the Short 
Horns, under the same circumstances, but the latter are so far 
superior as milkers, that the partiality already established 
for them will be difficult to overcome. 



THE HOLSTEIN OB DUTCH CATTLE. 

Comparatively few of this valuable milking breed have 
been brought to America* notwithstanding the fact that 
they have been long celebrated as a dairy breed, and are 
claimed to have been the source from which the Short 
Horns and Ayrshires derived their milk-producing qualities.. 

In color they are black-and-white, not mingled but each 
color distinctly marked and clear. In form they some- 
what resemble the Short Horns of the milking strains, 
though less rounded in outline. In size they are some.- 



[175] 4 MANUAL ON CATTLE. 41 




Holstein or Dutch. Cow. 

what smaller than the Short Horn. The four cows im- 
ported by Mr. Chenery, of Boston, Mass., in 1861, had 
an average live weight of 1325 pounds. 

They, as far as tested in this country, have given great 
satisfaction as dairy stock, their milk being similar in qual- 
ity to that of the Ayrshire and yielded in greater quan- 
tity. 

Mr. Allen, speaking of the milking qualities of the 
Holsteins imported by Mr. Chenery, says : " The milking 
qualities of the breed may be judged by the following 
memoranda : one of the imported cows when six years old, 
dropped a calf on the 15th of May, weighing 101 pounds; 
and from the 26th of May, to the 27th of July, by a care- 
ful and exact record, gave 4018 pounds 4 ounces of milk. 
The largest yield in any one day, was 76 pounds 5 ounces, 
(35^> quarts.) 

"In ten days she gave 744 pounds 12 ounces, or an av~ 
erage of 74 47-100 pounds per day. She gave a good 
flow of milk during the season, continuing to the 24th of 
May following, and on the succeeding day droppod twin. 



42 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[176] 



heifer calves, which weighed 155 pounds. * * * Six 
day's milk of this cow were set for cream, and the produce 
was 17 pounds 14 ounces of good butter, nearly 3 pounds 
per day, and it is claimed by her owner that she is not the 
very best cow of the herd." The milk though in very large 
quantity is of good quality, and is especially rich in casine. 
It is not a little remarkable that more of this valuable 
breed have not been imported into the United States, so 
satisfactory has been the experience of those who have 
tested them. The grade heifers by Dutch bulls inherit 
much of the fine milking qualities of the thoroughbreds. 

Judge John L. Hopkins, of Fulton county, Ga., has im- 
ported a few of this breed, and is well pleased with them. 




Holstein or Dutch Bull. 



The fact that their color corresponds with that of many 
of the native cattle, will prevent to some extent, their rapid 
introduction, as has been the case with the Ayrshire. An 
experienced breeder remarks that " while he considered 
the Ayrshire the most valuable breed he had tested, he 
could not sell their offspring, because their color corres- 
ponded so nearly with that of the native cattle." Their 
characteristics are not sufficiently distinctive so take the 
eye of the average farmer. 



[177] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 43 

AS BEEF ANIMALS 

The Holsteins have been but little tested in this country, 
but they are represented as giving satisfactory results where 
thoroughly tested. Allen says, " A pair of oxen, five 
years old, gave a live weight of 4,600 pounds, and proved 
superior workers, showing that they were trained for labor 
and not for beef alone." 



THE GALLOWAYS. 

Have never been bred pure, so far as is known, in the 
United States, but, from the early settlement of this coun- 
try, their grades have formed no inconsiderable part of 
what are known under the name of " native " cattle. They 
are known through the country as '* mulies " or " polled" 
cattle. Apart from their good qualities, which consist in 
docility, combined with fair milk and beef production, 
many prefer them on account of their being hornless, and 
consequently harmless to each other, and less dangerous 
to those who manage them, than those with horns. Some 
of the grade po led cattle have made very fine records at 
the milk pail, where they have been bred for the dairy. 

ANGUS POLLED CATTLE. 

This fine breed of polled or hornless cattle has not until 
recently been introduced into the United States. They 
were brought into especial notoriety as the premium fat 
cattle at the recent World's Fair at Paris. The country peo- 
ple in Angus call them " humlies " or " dodded " cattle. 
The attention of breeders on the coast of Kincardineshire, 
seems first to have been directed to them on account of 
their docility and the facility with which they fattened. 
Like the Herefords and the beef strains of Short Horns, 
they have been bred so persistently to beef that their 



44 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [178] 

milking qualities have declined. They resemble their an- 
cestors, the Galloways, in many respects. Their prevailing 
color is black with occasional white spots. 

WHAT ARE " NATIVES?" 

While, of course, there are no native cattle in the proper 
sense of the term on this continent, by general consent 
the common cattle of the country, which have been indis- 
criminately bred for so long that they have no distinctive 
characteristics, are called " natives." They constitute the 
great bulk of the cattle of this State, embracing all those 
which cannct be traced back to pure-bred ancestry. They 
have no fixed type and though some of their characteris- 
tics are transmitted to their offspring, being without uni- 
formity themselves, there is no certainty as to the character 
of the offspring. They have every variety of form, color 
and quality ; some are superior milkers when well cared 
for, and when selection is made with a view to the dairy 
qualities of the offspring for a number of years their im- 
provement is often very marked. 

As beef animals they vary as much as in other qualities, 
some attaining with good treatment, large size and making 
excellent beef. 

As work oxen they are often superior when they attain 
sufficient size which they will generally do under good 
treatment. 

Among the so-called natives, individuals are often found 
showing decided marks of improved blood, even in neigh- 
borhoods in which there have been no thoroughbred stock 
for years. 

They answer a good purpose, perhaps better than 
thoroughbreds, under circumstances of neglect and poor 
pasturage, and under good treatment on abundant pastures, 
they attain good size, w^ake serviceable work oxen and pay 
well at the pail. They, and grades of a few of the pure 



[179] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 45 

breeds, will be the dependence in Georgia for many years 
to come. 

Thoroughbred bulls, of either beef or dairy breeds, 
crossed on large native cows give very superior animals 
for general farm purposes. 



CHAPTER V. 

ADAPTATION OF GEOKGIA TO THE PRODUCTION OF 

NEAT CATTLE. 

Georgia possesses every requisite for the successful pro- 
duction of neat cattle whether they are grown for the dairy 
or for beef, if man will do his part. 

The climate of Georgia embraces a variety ranging 
from a mean temperature of 64° to 68° F. in the southern, 
to 52° to 56° F. in the mountainous belts. 

On this subject the following extract from the Hand 
Book of Georgia is appropriate : " In nothing regarding 
us is a greater mistake made abroad, and indeed, in some 
parts of our own country, than in the climate, or atmos- 
pheric condition of Georgia. The State being in the 
southern portion of the union, lying between parallels of 
latitude 30°, 39\ 27"(average) and 35°, the stranger naturally 
concludes that our climate is mild and delightful in winter; 
and in this he is correct. We have but little snow— -in 
more than half the State none at all for years together. 
We import or manufacture all our ice, and field work may 
be kept up at all seasons of the year. The difficulty with 
strangers is in determining the character of our climate 
during the summer months. 

"The winters being pleasant and genial, they conclude, 
without further investigation, that the summers must nee- 



46 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [180] 

essarily be hot and sultry. This is a serious mistake, as 
all will testify who have any practical knowledge of the 
subject. No finer summer climate is to be found on the 
continent, east of the Mississippi river, than that of many 
parts of Georgia, and, as a whole, it will compare favorably 
with that of the states north-west. Carefully conducted 
observations, year after year, show that the mean annual 
temperature of the city of Atlanta, our state capital, is the 
same with that of Washington City, Louisville, Ky., and 
St. Louis, Mo., which are from 800 to 880 miles further 
north. 

"The mean annual temperature south of a line drawn 
across the state from Augusta to Columbus, is between 
64° and Q8° F.; between the same line and another parallel 
to it, and running twenty miles south of Atlanta, we have 
a mean annual temperature between 60° and 64° F.; in an- 
other strip of territory, including Atlanta, we have a mean 
temperature for the year, of between 56° and 60° F. In 
what is known as upper Georgia, it is between 62° and 56° 
F., while in the mountains it is below 52<>F. 

*'The mean of Gainesville, in Hall county, and of Clarks- 
ville and Mt. Airy, in Habersham county, corresponds with 
that of central Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, upper Missouri and 
lower Nebraska." * * * " In explanation of these facts, 
certain features in the geographical situation and physical 
conformation of the state must be taken into consideration. 
In lower Georgia we find the greatest degree of heat in 
summer, the mercury sometimes rising as high as 96* 
rarely above that figure. It lies however, between the Atlan- 
tic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, in close proximity to both 
and the temperature is greatly modified by the strong cur- 
rents of sea air which continually pass from one of these great 
bodies of water to the other. The mean temperature of Savan- 
nah,in the south-eastern portion of the state during the months 
of June, July and August, is 79° to 80°; and in no part of 



[181] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 4T 

southern Georgia does the mercury often rise above 90°, 
whilst in winter it seldom descends to the freezing point 
Sun-strokes, so common in the northern and northwestern 
states, are almost wholly unknown in Georgia. " Eleva- 
tion affects temperature on an average, 1° Fahrenheit for 
every 300 feet. This alone would make a difference in 
Georgia of 16°, by reason of relative elevation between the 
shore level and the highest summit. 

"It is also affected by latitude, and there being a difference 
of about 4J° between the northern and southern limits of 
the state, the thermometer should show a difference of 
about d 9 in the temperature. 

"But latitude, without the aid of elevation, may not 
always materially affect temperature. There are other 
natural causes that may antagonize its influence. The diff- 
erence in the length of the days may increase the summer 
range in more northern latitudes. 

"At New York, for instance, in mid-summer the days are 
nearly an hour longer than they are at Savannah, and at 
Quebec, in Canada, nearly one hour and a half longer, 
and the nights correspondingly shorter ; the consequence 
is, at New York there is one hour longer for the heat to 
accumulate from the direct rays of the sun, and one hour 
less time at night for the heat thus accumulated to be car- 
ried off by radiation. This is said to be the cause why 
Northern latitudes are hotter in summer than Southern 
latitudes. 

" Finally, we have no hesitation in saying that, take it 
the year round, the climate of Georgia is equal to any to 
be found on the globe, whether we regard personal com- 
fort in indoor and in outdoor work, or for the production 
of crops for the support of man and beast, both in the 
summer and the winter months. We may mention a fact 
in this connection : 

"The city of Atlanta is situated within a few miles of the 



48 A MANUAL ON CATTLE, [182] 

southern line of what is called northern or upper Georgia, 
which contains the mountainous region, and yet we know 
many farmers in the immediate vicinity, who have pastured 
their stock throughout the past winter, and kept them in 
excellent condition on the growing crops of wheat, rye 
and barley," As regards 

RAINFALL, 

Georgia has an abundant annual supply, generally well 
distributed through the year. 

The following from the Farmers' Scientific Manual, shows 
that there is no lack of rain for the production of crops for 
cattle: ''The average annual rainfall for five years, from 
1871 to 1875, inclusive, at West End, near Atlanta, is found 
to be 53.32 inches, and at Macon 54.88 inches. From 
observations through a long series of years, by the Smith- 
sonian Institute, it lias been found that the average annual 
amount of rainfall in the several sections of the State is 
approximately as follows : " north Georgia fifty inches, 
middle and east Georgia, the northern part of southwest 
Georgia and southeast Georgia, 55 inches, the middle por- 
tion of southwest Georgia, 60 inches ; and the extreme 
southern part of southwest Georgia, 65 inches ;-— average 
for the State about 54 inches. 

There is every variety of soil from the sand-bed to the 
stiffest clay, and every variety of topography from the 
broad plains in the south, gradually passing into the hill 
country of middle Georgia, which in turn rises with in- 
creasing elevation to the mountains of north Georgia. 

Throughout these varied circumstances of soil and cli- 
mate, cattle thrive and under the careless, neglectful system 
generally pursued, yield an annual interest upon " the in- 
vestment, and the annual cost of keeping" of forty percent 
according to the reports of those who keep cattle in differ- 
ent parts of the State. 



[183] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 49 

In nearly the whole State, cattle can be fed, in part at 
least, upon green food every month in the year, if proper 
attention is given to planting crops for their use, 

VEGETATION, NATURAL AND CULTIVATED. 

It is hardly necessary to say more under this head than 
to state that Georgia soil produces all the cereals, grasses 
and other forage plants, grown in the Northern and Middle 
States of the Union and some of great value, not grown 
in those sections, but in order that the capacity of our soil 
under high culture may be appreciated, a few instances of 
unusual production will be given, to illustrate the facilities 
for cheap feeding which our peculiar climate, soil and pro- 
ductions afford. 

In 1873, Mr. R. H. Hardaway produced, on upland, in 
Thomas county, 119 bushels of corn on one acre. 

In the same county, the same year, Capt. E. T. Davis 
produced 96J bushels of rust-proof oats per acre. After 
the oats were harvested he planted the same land in cotton 
and in the fall gathered 800 pounds of seed cotton." From 
this he got 18 pushels of cotton seed, making in all 114 
bushels of excellent stock feed from one acre. 

In 1874, Mr. Wiley W. Groover, of Brooks county, pro- 
duced, with two horses, on a farm of 126J acres, without 
the use of commercial fertilizers, cotton, corn, oats, peas, 
sugar-cane and potatoes, to the value of $3,258.25, of 
which $2,213.25, were net profit. The stock raised on 
the farm were not counted in this estimate. 

Mr. Joseph Hodges, of Brooks county, produced on one 
acre 2,700 pounds of seed cotton, From this he got, b«- 
sides 900 pounds of lint cotton, 60 bushels of seed, which 
makes excellent stock food. 

In Bulloch county, Mr. Samuel Groover produced on one 
acre, 3,500 pounds of seed cotton, or 1166 pounds of lint 
and 77 bushels of seed. 
4 



5® A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [184] 

Mr. J. R. Respass, of Schley county, gathered in 1878, 
500 bushels of oats on five acres of upland. 

Mr. H. T. Peeples, of Berrien county, reports to this 
department 800 bushels of sweet potatoes gathered from 
one acre of pine upland. 

In Wilkes county 123 bushels of corn were gathered 
from one acre of bottom land. 

In the same county Mr. J. F. Madden produced in 1876, 
137 bushels of oats on one acre. 

Mr. R. M. Brooks, of Pike county, produced in 1873, 500 
bushels of rice on five acres of bottom land. 

Mr. R. B. Baxter, of Hancock, produced in 1872, 4,862 
pounds of dry clover hay, on seven-eighths of an acre of 
upland at one cutting. 

Dr. T. P. Janes, of Greene county, harvested in 1871, 
five tons of clover hay per acre, in one season, at two cut- 
tings. 

Mr. Patrick Long, of Bibb county, after harvesting from 
an acre a crop of cabbages, cut from the same ground, the 
sa*ne year, 8,646 pounds of native crab-grass hay. 

Mr. S. W. Leak, in 1873, harvested 40 bushels of wheat 
from an acre, sowed the stubble in peas and harvested 10,- 
726 pounds of pea-vine hay in the fall of the same year, 
from the same acre. 

Mr. Edward Camp, of Coweta county, harvested 1,000 
bushels of oats from ten acres. 

Mr. J. T. Manley, of Spalding county, harvested 115 
bushels of oats from one acre. 

Mr. L. B. Willis, of Greene county, in June 1873 har- 
vested, from one acre and one third, 20 bushels of wheat, 
aad in October following, harvested from the same acre, 
27,130 pounds of corn forage. 

Dr. W. Moody, of Greene county, harvested at one cut- 
ting from one acre of river bottom, in 1874, 13, 953 pounds 
of Bermuda grass hay. 



[185] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 51 

Mr. J. R. Winters, of Cobb county, produced in 1873, 
from lfV acres, 6,575 pounds of dry clover hay, at the 
first cutting of the second* year's crop. 

Mr. T. H. Moore, of the same county, produced on one 
acre, 105 bushels of corn, and Mr. Jeremiah Daniel, 125 
bushels. 

Mr. R. Peters, Jr., of Gordon county, harvested in 1874, 
from three acres of Lucerne, four years old, fourteen tons 
and 200 pounds of hay, or 9,400 pounds per acre. 

Mr. Thomas Smith, of Cherokee county, produced on 
one acre, 104 bushels of corn. 

In Monroe county in 1879, 137 bushels of oats are re- 
ported gathered from one acre, by one farmer, and 56 
bushels of wheat by another. 

In Oconee county 106 bushels of oats from one acre 
are reported. 

Similar instances of large yield might be given in great 
er numbers, but enough have been given to show the 
capacity of the soils of Georgia to produce in the greatest 
abundance, every variety of food for neat cattle. 

Strangers from regions in which grain and stock are the 
principal market products, are impressed with the absence 
of sod fields, forgetting that the rearing of stock is a sec- 
ondary consideration in all that portion of the South where 
cotton is cultivated as the staple money crop. 

Wheat, rye, oats, barley, Indian corn, rice, all the 
grasses and leguminous plants grown in other parts of the 
Union, besides others peculiar to the South, the medicks, 
etc., grow profitably in Georgia. 

Bermuda Grass, the bane of cotton fields, but a boon to 
the stock farm, makes a more impenetrable sod than the 
famous blue grass, and once well set, will afford pasturage 
inferior to none in nutritive qualities, for an indefinite 
period. 

Small Grain, sown early in the fall, affords pasturage 
through the winter months, or may be repeatedly cut and 



52 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [186] 

to cattle during the late fall, winter, and early spring 
months. 

Lucerne, one of the most nutritious plants grown, may- 
be cut from four to six times during one season, and once 
well set will last for thirty years, and perhaps longer, if 
properly cared for, Mr. Peters has a few acres in Gordon 
county, that were planted 24 years ago, from which he 
harvests several crops every year. 

The Field-Pea, peculiarly a Southern forage plant, grows 
most luxuriantly on ordinary lands, and affords a superior 
provender for cattle. 

The Millets thrive well, though not extensively culti- 
vated, and give heavy yields of forage for soiling or hay for 
winter. The cat-tail millet has been culivated for half a 
century in small patches, for feeding green during sum- 
mer. It can be cut several times during the summer. 

Sweet Potatoes, another crop peculiar to the South, yield 
immense crops per acre when well cultivated on sandy or 
sandy loam soils, as high as 800 bushels per acre having 
been reported to this Department. 

Forage Corn affords an immense harvest of excellent 
provender at small cost. 

Natural Pasturage is relied upon by the majority of the 
stock-owners of Georgia, and in many sections of the 
State it affords an abundant subsistance for cattle during 
the summer months. Where the river and creek bottoms 
are inclosed during the summer the grass and wild cane, 
which grows upon them, afford good winter pasturage for 
cattle. Where such are accessible in middle and south- 
ern Georgia dry cattle often pass the winter in good condi- 
tion, without being fed at all. 

Indeed the only difficulty in the way of profitable cattle- 
raising in Georgia, rests with the people, rather than with 
the climate and resources of the State. The climate is 
milder in winter, and not warmer in summer than that of 
those sections of the Union in which cattle are reared in 



[187] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 53 

the largest number, and of the best quality. Expensive 
barns are not needed, and less provision is necessary, as 
regards food, to carry cattle through the winter. 

The attention of the people has not been specially di 
rected to stock-raising, and consequently the capacity of 
the State for cattle production has not been properly tested, 
the rearing of cattle has been merely incidental to other 
industries of the farm, which have been considered more 
important and profitable. 

Again, the demand for the products of the pasture and 
the dairy has not been such as to stimulate attention to 
cattle, or justify farmers in making special investment of 
money with a view to production for market. 

There can be no question as to the profit of better at- 
tention to cattle in Georgia, even if a domestic supply of 
beef, milk and butter, is the only object, but with the pres- 
ent means of transportation, our mild winter climate may 
be made available in supplying Northern markets with fresh 
yellow butter, made from fresh, green food. 

The cattle of Georgia have enjoyed a most remarkable 
immunity from disease of every kind, an occasional case of 
red water being the only serious malady with which they 
are affected. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE BEST BREED FOR GEORGIA. 

This question cannot be answered definitely for the 
whole State, or for two farms, even, in the same neighbor- 
hood, without taking into consideration the circumstances 
of soil, probable attention to be bestowed, and the object 
had in view by the breeder. The best breed for any par- 
ticular locality is that which under all the circumstances 



54 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [188J 

will pay the owner the highest profit on the investment in 
money and labor. 

There are so many factors to be considered in answering 
this inquiry, so often made, that the subject will be dis- 
cussed from the various standpoints of farmers of Georgia 
surrounded by different circumstances of soil, climate, 
proximity to markets, etc. 

No farm is complete without its milch cows. The ques- 
tion, therefore, is not whether cattle shall be kept on the 
farm, but what kind will pay best, and how much atten- 
tion should be bestowed upon them. The first question 
to be considered is the use to be made of catt&e, whether 
they are to be bred for beef or for the dairy, and if for the 
dairy, whether the produce is to be consumed in the form 
of milk or butter. 

If milk is the object of the proprietor, and especial atten- 
tion is to be given to providing suitable and abundant food, 
and proper care bestowed upon the cattle themselves, with 
a view to their improvement, a thorough bred bull of one 
of the milk breeds should be crossed upon well selected 
native cows, and upon their female offspring for several 
generations. Some will object to this plan of breeding 
the bull to his own offspring, but if they will read the his- 
tory of some of the most noted herds of this country and 
England, their prejudices in this regard will be weakened 
if not removed. This, however, will be more fully dis- 
cussed in the chapter on "The Principles of Breeding." 
Of course each individual must make his choice of breed 
to suit his soil, climate, pasturage, and the uses which he 
proposes to make of them. 

If he proposes to raise thoroughbreds for sale, then the 
selection should be made of that breed which is most pop- 
ular and hence will meet with the most ready sale. At 
present the Jerseys are the most popular and fashionable 
in Georgia. 



[189] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 55 

The Ayrshire, Dutch, and Short Horn (of milking strain) 
make the best sources from which to cross the native cows, 
where large yield of milk is the object ; the Ayrshire for 
any part of the State where a reasonable supply of prov- 
ender is accessible; the Dutch or Short Horn where an 
abundant pasturage can be had. 

The latter, being large animals, require a liberal bite of 
grass or abundant feeding to give good results. 

The Devons and their grades answer a good purpose 
where a combination of beef, milk and butter is the object 
of the breeder. 

If the sale of butter is the principal object, the Jerseys 
and their grades are unquestionably the most profitable. 
The thoroughbreds of ail the breeds are too expensive to 
be used purely for farm purposes where the sale of their 
products, other than thoroughbred offspring, is relied upon 
for the income. When the sale of thoroughbreds, how- 
ever, is the principal object, the sale of dairy products 
proves a material auxiliary in defraying expenses. 

If little attention is to be given the cattle, and no special 
provision made for their support, good native cattle will 
probably prove more profitable than improved breeds, and 
may themselves be greatly improved by continual judicious 
selection. 

If good attention, however, is to be bestowed upon the 
cattle and liberal provision made for their support, a cross 
of a thoroughbred bull of the breed suited to the sur- 
roundings and objects of the breeder, will materially im- 
prove the character of the offspring and increase the profits 
derived from the sale of their products. 

Pertinacity in breeding is often more important than the 
first selection of a breed, if the farmer has a clear concep- 
tion of what he needs and will practice an intelligent and 
judicious selection of breeding animals. It is too often the 
case that breeders cross their stock with such different breeds 



56 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [190J 

as happen to be most convenient, regardless of the char- 
acter of cattle they need, until the type of the offspring 
becomes as uncertain as a lottery, and their qualities as 
various as the sources from which they were derived. If an 
intelligent breeder will determine definitely the character 
of stock he needs, and select the offspring of each genera- 
tion with reference to the use he intends to make of them, 
never using other than thoroughbred bulls, he can in a few 
years build up a herd equal, for farm or dairy purposes, to 
the thoroughbreds, and much less expensive. 

If beef production is the leading object in view, two 
questions must be carefully considered in the outset, viz.: 
Can sufficient pasturage be provided for rearing the young 
cattle and fattening the beeves in summer, and enough 
grain and forage stored away each summer and fall to carry 
the young cattle through the winter in good condition, or 
stall-feed the beeves if the markets demand winter or 
spring beef. 

The difference in the price of beef in winter and in sum- 
mer will often justify the expense and trouble of fattening 
the animals on grain in the winter or early spring. Whether 
this will pay or not must be decided by each farmer for 
himself. But little of this has thus far been done in the 
South. 

If abundant pasturage can be had for summer and for- 
age for winter, the next question to be considered is, 
whether the grazier shall rear his own cattle or purchase 
them in a lean condition and fatten them on grain or grass, 
according to the circumstances which surround him. Graz- 
iers rarely rear all of their cattle on account of the neces- 
sit of keeping a large number of cows and young cattle 
constantly on hand in order to supply the desired number 
of beeves annually. 



[191] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 57 

CHAPTER VIL 

GENERAL .PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 

On this subject there is much difference of opinion 
among experienced breeders, especially as to the propri- 
ety of what is usually called in-and-in breeding. The follow- 
ing general principles are extracted from "American Cattle," 
by Allen, who is probably the best authority on the sub- 
ject in hand on this continent. He gives the following 
rules for the guidance of beginners in the selection of a 
herd to start with. They should have — 

1st. " Sound health, and freedom from constitutional, 
hereditary, chronic or local disease, blemish, or infirmity 
of any kind. And such sound health and freedom from 
any kind of fixed disease, should appertain to every young 
animal which is to be retained for breeding purposes there- 
after. 

2d. "As much perfection of form as may be possible to 
obtain in the breed, bearing in mind the chief uses for 
which the animals are intended. 

3d. "That they possess the strong and marked character- 
istics of their breed, in the various points belonging to it. 

4th. "That if of a distinct breed, the blood be thorough- 
ly pure, and that purity be substantiated by well authen- 
ticated pedigrees, through as many generations back as 
can be ascertained. 

5th. "Good temper, and a kindly, docile disposition in 
the animals so selected or reared for breeding or other 
purposes. 

'To carry out these rules,an enumeration of certain points 
which all cattle, of any breed should possess, is necessary ; 
among them are ; 



58 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [192] 

1st. "A fine head, small and clean, 

2d. "A broad, full and deep chest, giving room for well 
developed and vigorous lungs to play. 

3d. "Good length, breadth and soundness of body,roomy 
and full from shoulder to hip, with low flanks, thus giving 
room for abundant action of the viscera, or bowels, and 
expansion of the foetus, if a female. 

4th. * 'Straight back* broad hips, and good length of loin. 

5th. "Fineness of bone, and smoothness in the carcass 
generally." 

These general, and we may say universal, requisites, are 
to be considered no matter what breed is adopted, or what 
use is to be made of the cattle, bearing in mind, however, 
the peculiar points and characteristics of the particular 
breed adopted. 

"To the rules, and their subdivisions, here laid down, 
relating to the general figure of the animal, are to be added 
certain requisites to be supplied by the breeder, and of 
these may be named as indispensible : 

1st. "Abundance of proper food in the various seasons, 
as grass, or its equivalent, in spring, summer and autumn ; 
nutritious, well-cured and prepared food in winter ; and 
plenty of good water always. 

2d. "Regularity in feeding ; no over-stuffing ; no scanti- 
ness of allowance; but enough always without waste. 

3d. "Shelter always when needed, according to tempera- 
ture of climate and atmosphere ; avoiding extreme cold, 
violent storms and excessive heats. 

4th. "Kindly treatment ; thus promoting docility in the 
animal ; contentment of disposition, and a fearless con-fi" 
dence in its keeper — all promotive of quietude and thrift. 
Dumb beasts though they be, they appreciate good treat- 
ment much beyond what is usually supposed, and all 
these are indispensable to the successful efforts for the im- 
provement or even retention of their good qualities." 



[193] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 59 

The cattle-breeder must study nature, learn her laws, and 
direct his efforts at improvement in accordance with them, 
if he would attain success. Of these laws, none is more 
inexorable in its demands for consideration at the hands of 
the stock-breeder, or more potent in deciding the question 
of success or failure, than that which pervades all animated 
nature, animal as well as vegetable, viz. : "Like begets 
like." Without this, Agriculture in all its various depart- 
ments, would be a deception and a snare, and all nature 
perpetually continue in a chaotic state. With this princi 
pie, however, as a guide, the stock-breeder need only ex- 
ercise a sound judgment, guided by a close and carelul ob- 
servation to effect the most marked improvement in the 
character and type of his stock. 

Whether the influence of this principle enures to the 
benefit or injury of the herd will depend upon the skill of 
the breeder in selecting and mating his breeding animals, 
so that good rather than bad qualities shall have promi- 
nence in the offspring. 

Each breeder must decide upon the object to be attained 
in breeding cattle, select the breed that suits his purposes, 
and adhere to fixed principles in improving and develop, 
ing the most profitable stock for his purposes. 

If his object be to sell thoroughbreds, he must make a 
selection of the breed or breeds that will command the 
most ready sale and best suit the wants of his prospective 
customers, for if they do not suit the wants of his patrons, 
however fashionable they may be, his success will be tem- 
porary, and another who better understands the wants of 
the people will take his place. 

In order to succeed in rearing thoroughbreds, the breed- 
er must make judicious purchase of registered animals with 
good ancestral records, both as to pedigree and profitable 
yield of the peculiar product for which they are bred. 

A proper nucleus being obtained, good attention, care- 



60 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [194] 

ful selection and abundant food,will be necessary to success. 
The breeder must thoroughly acquaint himself with the 
general points of a good animal and especially with the 
type of the breed he keeps. 

If his object be the sale of beef, his selections must be 
made for breeding purposes, of those animals which expe- 
rience has taught are best adapted to his purpose, and 
provision must be made for an abundant supply of food 
for the rapid and full development of his animals. 

The beef-producing breeds require full pastures or liberal 
feeding, without which success need not be expected. 

When beef is the object, those animals must be selected 
for breeding purposes which promise the largest develop- 
ment of the most salable parts, combined with early ma- 
turity and capacity for liberal feeding. 

If milk or butter is the object, selections for breeding pur- 
poses, must be made of one of those breeds which is noted 
for large yield of those products ; and young animals which 
give promise of development into the dairy type, must be 
selected for propagating their species. Selection, how- 
ever, must be made with good judgment, in order that 
good qualities may be not only propagated but increased 
in the offspring. The natural tendency of improved stock 
to retrograde, necessitates constant watchfulness on the 
part of breeders to counteract this tendency, by selecting 
for breeders those bulls and heifers which both by their 
ancestral record, and by their own points, promise to pro- 
pagate good qualities in their offspring. It must be remem- 
bered that, in their natural state, cows give only enough 
milk to sustain their young for a few months, and that the 
present excess of yield over the wants of the calf, is the 
result of domestication, cultivation and selection. Turn 
them out to breed promiscuously among themselves, cease 
to stimulate milk production by abundant pastures, liberal 
feeding, and thorough milking, and deterioration com- 



[195] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 61 

mences at once, and will continue until the original normal 
condition is reached. This is illustrated in the cattle on 
the range in southern Georgia where they are never milked. 
The yield of milk is only sufficient to sustain the calf, and 
with the exception of where improved bulls are occasion- 
ally introduced, the quality of the stock deteriorates into 
very inferior animals, small, slow to mature, homely and 
unprofitable. Yet these cattle may be steadily and surely 
improved by continued selection and good attention. This 
fact is shown by the good qualities of some of the cows 
which receive good attention from their call hood. The 
breeder who gives the best 

ATTENTION TO CALVES 

will usually be most successful in building up his herd and 
maintaining it in an improved condition. Animals that 
are stunted in their growth when young, rarely recover 
entirely from its effects, no matter what be the subsequent 
care bestowed upon them. They should be kept in a 
growing condition from their birth, and not at any time, 
winter nor summer, stinted in food. 

Their future usefulness and profit will depend in a large 
measure upon their treatment during calfhood. 

IMPROVED BULLS. 

The fact that * ' like produces like " is most forcibly illus- 
trated in the use of thoroughbred bulls upon our native 
cows. The thoroughbred having a fixed, positive type and 
the power, from long breeding in a line, of transmitting 
his qualities to his offspring, and the female being destitute 
of any fixed power in this direction, the prepotency of the 
bull in such cases is most marked, and the improvement 
in a herd of native cows by the use of thoroughbred bulls 
is rapid and satisfactory. Indeed the half-bloods often 
equal in appearance and utility the thoroughbreds, but 



62 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [196] 

breeders should not be induced by their fine appearance to 
rely upon them either for the improvement of their herds, 
or for sustaining improvements already made by the use 
of thoroughbreds. 

The type of the sire, while showing prominently in the 
half-breeds, is not sufficiently fixed in them to enable them 
to transmit their good qualities with any degree of cer- 
tainty. Grade males, therefore, should not be used when 
it is practicable to secure thoroughbreds. If, however, 
thoroughbreds can not be obtained, the next best that can 
be done is to use the best grade male that can be had. 

Small males should be coupled with large females when 
crosses of different breeds are made. If the Jerseys or 
their grades are crossed with Short-Horns or their grades, 
the Jersey males should be used on the female Short Horn, 
and so with other breeds of different sizes ; the males of 
the smaller on the females of the larger. 

If large males are bred to small females, the drain upon 
the system of the small female to sustain the foetus, which 
will naturally partake of the size of the sire, will severely 
tax her digestive organs. Again, the capacity of the 
womb of the small female will not afford sufficient room 
for the full development of the large foetus, and deformity 
may result. 

If such foetus is carried to maturity in small dams, the 
risk of death of the dam or calf, or of both, is imminent. In 
one herd, in which grade Ayrshire cows were crossed with 
a Short Horn bull, five cows died during parturition, and 
the calves had to be taken from others. 

When small males are crossed upon large females, none 
of these difficulties are experienced. 

The large feeding capacity of the dam, enables her to 
sustain, without extraordinary tax, the small foetus, she 
has ample uteral capacity for its full development, and no 
difficulty is experienced in its delivery. 



[197] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 63 

PAMPERING OBJECTIONABLE. 

While breeding animals should be kept in a thrifty con- 
dition from calfhood, extraordinary feeding or pampering 
is for many reasons objectionable. The tendency of over- 
feeding, is to induce constitutional weakness rather than 
vigor, and if carried to excess, often produces disease, es- 
pecially if not continually and uniformly practiced when 
once begun. 

It is especially objectionable in milking breeds, since 
the tendency to fat-production may be developed at the 
expense of milk-production. 

The temptation to over-feed even breeding stock, when 
intended for sale, is almost irresistable, and may not be 
very objectionable in those intended exclusively for beef- 
production, if the young cattle receive similar treatment at 
the hands of purchasers. In the case of beef-breeds, the 
high feeding would probably have the tendency to develop 
the beef-producing capacity of the breed. Liberal feeding 
has been practiced by many of the most celebrated breed- 
ers, from Bakewell down to the present day, but pamper- 
ing is seldom practiced by skillful breeders. Observation 
teaches that heifers and cows which are over-fed are not 
only less certain to breed than those kept in a good,thrifty 
condition, but that the calves from over-fatted dams, are 
smaller and less fully developed than from those in only 
good condition. 

The opposite extreme however, is even more objection- 
able. Cows should be in good condition when they bear 
calves. If they are very poor at parturition, they will 
neither bring good calves nor afford a profitable yield of 
milk. 

CROSS BREEDING, 

Or the coupling of two thoroughbreds of different, distinct 
breeds seldom gives satisfactory results, since both sides 



64 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [198] 

having the power of transmitting accurately their peculiar 
type, or both being positive in character, the type of neither 
parent is correctly represented in the offspring, but an un- 
certain blending of the two. The first cross sometimes 
gives good animals, but deterioration is rapid thereafter. 
It is generally better to cross thoroughbred bulls upon 
good common cows, and then if a mingling of pure blood 
is desired, make a second cross of the desired blood upon 
the grades resulting from the first cross. 

Thoroughbred heifers of great value, should be bred 
from the first to bulls of the same breed, since the first 
male with whom they have connection may materially af- 
fect the character of their offspring, by other bulls. There 
are very striking instances of this influence on record, of 
which a few will be mentioned. 

Alexander Harvey, physician and lecturer in the Royal 
Infirmary, at Aberdeen, Scotland, in a pamphlet "On a 
Remarkable Effect of Cross-Breeding," gives some striking 
illustrations of this fact from which only two will be given. 
"A pure Aberdeenshire heifer, was served with a pure 
Teeswater bull, by which she had a first-cross calf. The 
following season the same cow was served with a pure 
Aberdeenshire bull ; the produce was a cross calf, which, 
when two years old, had very long horns, the parents being 
both polled. Again, a pure Aberdeenshire cow was served 
in 1845, with a cross bull, that is to say, an animal pro- 
duced between a first-cross cow and a pure Teeswater bull. 
To this bull she had a cross calf. Next season she was 
served with a pure Aberdeenshire bull ; the produce was 
quite a cross in shape and color." The same author men- 
tions similar instances which occurred with mares, sows, 
dogs, pigs and sheep. These facts are mentioned in order 
that the owners of thoroughbred heifers of great value, 
from which they wish to breed thoroughbred animals of 
their kind, may avoid similar mistakes. 



[199] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 65 

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 

On this subject Allen says : "This mode of breeding, to 
obtain certain results, has been practiced with all domestic 
animals — among quadrupeds, from the horse down to the 
rabbit — and with the feathered tribes, through all their va- 
rieties, from the swan to the canary bird. Such is the fact ; 
and in support of it, numerous instances might be named, 
in breeding other animals than cattle, which are not now 
necessary to notice as we state the principle on which the 
practice has been adopted, and the successful results which 
have followed it." 

The most noted breeders in this country and Europe 
have practiced close in-and-in breeding with the most sat- 
isfactory results, only going out of their own herds at long 
intervals for bulls. Allen says; " Bakewell did so with. 
his Long Horns, through his whole course of cattle breed- 
ing, going only twice out of his own herd for a fresh bull, andi 
then into the same family blood, at the distance of a few 
counties away, and no breeder of his time had better, if as 
good, cattle of the kind as he. Price, a noted breeder of 
Herefords, thirty years ago— no better in England — assert- 
ed that he had not gone out out of his own herd for a bulk 
for forty years, and at his final sale, when he gave up breed- 
ing, his cattle brought the highest prices — for Herefords — 
that had been known. The two brothers Colling, began 
breeding Short Horns, from the best cattle they could 
obtain from other breeders, about the year 1780. They 
soon got the bull Hubback, a thoroughbred of their own 
breed, and although they retained him only three years, 
they bred pertinaciously from his blood until the year 
1810 — thirty years — excepting only in Charles Colling's 
" alloy" family of the Galloway cross. Charles, in that 
year, sold out his stock at the highest prices ever known. . 
His brother Robert so bred his stock — no " alloy " about 
them — until 1818 — thirty-eight years — when he sold out: 
5 



66 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [200] 

at prices larger than any other Short Horn herd would sell 
for at the time. * * * 

" Their stock stood in the very highest repute, and no, 
men had bred so intensely in-and-in, by every possible in- 
termixture, as they, adhering to their old blood to the last; 
Charles, in some instances, bred his bull "Favorite," to 
his own dam, and sister, and granddaughters, and so dow» 
for four or five generations. 

"So also bred Mr. Bates, who bought his first "Duchess" 
deeply bred in-and-in, of Charles Colling, in the year 1804. 
He bred her and her near relations together, all closely 
allied in blood, and never went out of his own herd for a 
bull, with any success, as he frequently asserted, until the 
year 1831, when he obtained the bull " Belvedere," of the 
same blood, in another herd. He also introduced into his 
herd, the " Matchem cow," an animal showing excellent 
points of character, a stranger to his own stock, but which 
he contended had a back-cross of his favorite blood in her, 
and thus possessing good quality, with which to reinvigor- 
ate the energies of his deeply in-and-in bred stock. He 
crossed his best bulls on that cow, and then interbred her 
produce with others of his old blood, and adhered to that 
blood thus crossed, and still further interbred, for the re- 
mainder of his life. Mr. Bates died in 1849, and for more 
than fifty years, was a Short Horn breeder. 

"So, also, bred the Booth brothers, John and Richard, 
long time breeders of great celebrity, and their stock still 
remains in high repute, both in England and America. 
They bred deeply in-and-in. So did the Wetherells, 
Mason, Wright, Trotter, Charge, Earl Spencer, Sir Charles 
Knightley, and other noted breeders of their day, although 
we know less of their particular breeding, only as we trace 
them through the early herd-books, than of the Collings 
and Bates. All these herds were of high reputation, and 
their blood, passing since through the hands of other 



[201] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 67 

breeders, is now widely, by importation, scattered over the 
United States, and the Canadas. * * Every improved 
race of cattle in Britain has been more or less so in-and 
in-bred, Devons, Herefords, Long Horns, Ayrshires, High- 
landers, Galloways, Alderneys, and the famous ' Dutch ' 
cows of Holland. It was indispensible so to do, to con- 
centrate their good qualities, until a standard of excellence 
had been attained, from which the breeders could strike 
out into more divergent blood." 

" Thus ; the fact that in-and-in breeding, of itself, having 
a tendency to deteriorate the quality of the produce, is 
shown to be fallacious, so far as those breeders were con- 
cerned ; the manner of doing so is quite another thing. 
Interbreeding in such close relation, is a nice — possibly a 
hazardous — thing, and can only be practiced by experienced 
men who are good physiologists, have a just appreciation 
of both the good and indifferent qualities which their cattle 
possess, and the knowledge how to couple them together, 
to produce favorable results. The great merits and object 
claimed for in-and-in breeding, is the concentration of good 
blood in the animal so bred, enabling him or her to trans- 
mit that blood strongly, not only in the herd where they 
originated, but in other herds to which they may be re- 
moved. We do not, in fact, believe that many who object 
to the so-called in-and-in practice of breeding, really ap- 
preciate their own course of practice, while they are con- 
stantly pursuing that which they condemn." 

Those who practice in-and-in breeding, should bear con- 
stantly in mind the fact that while it is the most expeditious 
method of intensifying good points, bad qualities are also 
propagated and intensified by the same practice, and hence, 
unless the utmost care is exercised in the selection of ani- 
mals near of kin to be coupled together, constitutional 
defects will be intensified to the serious injury of the herd. 

It must be remembered, also, that bad qualities, thus 
intensified, are not easily removed by subsequent breeding. 



68 A BfANUAL ON CATTLE. [202J 

To illustrate : If a male and female of very close kin, 
each having the same defect, are coupled together, the 
tendency of both being to transmit this particular quality, 
it will be materially increased in the produce. 

If the defect is an external one, which may be readily 
seen, it may be avoided in the selection of animals to be 
coupled, but if the defect is in the heart or lungs, such 
organic defects may be seriously intensified before they 
are discovered. 

Once established by such breeding, it is no easy matter 
to ever eradicate them, even with the most careful selection, 
made by the best and most experienced judge of cattle. 

Hence, while in-and-in breeding is perhaps the surest 
means of rapidly improving a given herd under careful 
selection by an experienced breeder, it is by no means a 
safe, but is even a hazardous, practice for beginners, or the 
inexperienced. 

The principles to be observed in breeding under any 
other circumstances, apply to in-and-in breeding, but their 
application in the latter case requires more accurate knowl- 
edge of the subject, and much greater skill in selecting 
breeding animals. 

If it is desired to propagate any particular good quality, 
the male and female to be coupled should possess this 
quality well developed, and if it is desired to rapidly 
intensify it in the produce, animals closely related and pos- 
sessing the desired quality should be selected. Care, 
however, should be used to avoid, in such selection, ani- 
mals having bad qualifies highly developed, since the 
principle that " like begets like " applies as well to the 
transmission of bad as of good qualities. 

The first thing to be considered in the selection of breed- 
ing animals is soundness of constitution, without which 
no animal, whether male or female, should be allowed to 
propagate its kind. The next in importance is the form 



[203] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. €9 

and peculiar points characteristic of the particular breed 
in use. 

In ordinary breeding, it is of great importance that the 
animals selected for breeding purposes shall have good 
qualities well developed, and be as free as possible from 
defects. This is important in the females as they exert 
probably an equal influence with the male upon their indi- 
vidual offspring ; but the character of the bull is of greater 
importance than that of the cow in proportion to the num- 
ber of cows served by him. To illustrate : A cow can 
affect the character of only one calf a year, while a bull 
may stamp his characteristics upon an hundred in a single 
year, if his resources are properly husbanded and judi- 
ciously directed. One perfect service by a vigorous bull 
is as effectual as a dozen and often more so. 

Now if the bull has any organic defect he is liable to 
transmit it to each one of his produce, and if subsequently 
coupled with his own offspring, the defect will be intensi- 
fied by transmission from both dam and sire. The necessity 
for the utmost care in the selection of the bull when in- 
and-in breeding is practiced will, therefore, be readily 
understood. 

The prejudice which exists in the minds of many persons 
against what they call incestuous breeding, is based largely 
upon their preconceived ideas in regard to the intermar- 
riage of close blood relations in our own species. There 
is little analogy, however, in this regard between man and 
other animals. There is no such thing as incest in the 
brute creation. " They have no family affections or sym- 
pathies, no permanent likes or dislikes, after the mother 
has weaned her young, and it has become able to provide 
for itself. The female, when in heat, freely receives the 
male, comely or uncomely, no matter what, if of her own 
kind; and the male, with the same ungovernable pro- 
pensity, seeks his gratification with hen Blood relation 



70 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [204] 

among themselves amounts to nothing, even if they had 
the capacity to think of it, which they have not. The 
indulgence of their lust is the sole object of their desire, 
and that is effected regardless of consequences." 
The conclusions, therefore, are : 

1. There is nothing wrong or improper in in-and-in 
breeding^among stock. 

2. It is a dangerous practice except in the hands of ex- 
perienced and skillful breeders. 

3. It has been in such hands a most potent agency in 
building up the best breeds of cattle now known. 

4. It is the most expeditious method of establishing in 
any given breed a desired type, under judicious selection 
of breeding animals. 

5. Promiscuous in-and-in breeding, without the most 
careful and skillful selection of both sire and dam, will 
result in degeneration both in form and constitution* 



CHAPTER VIIL 

GRADING UP NATIVES. 

Before discussing the subject it is important to under 
stand exactly what is meant by the term w native." 

In the ordinary meaning of the term there are of course 
no native cattle in America, since, previous to its discovery 
by the Caucasian race, there were no cattle on this con- 
tinent. 

All cattle which not only do not belong to any distinct 
breed, but cannot be traced to any such breed, are classed, 
by way of distinction, as "natives." Thus understood, 
there is no impropriety in the use of the term " native " to 
designate the common cattle of the country. They con- 



[205] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 71 

stitute a large majority of the cattle of this country, and 
among them we often find individual specimens of marked 
excellence. 

They must form the basis of improvement in our herds, 
whether that improvement be made by the slow process 
of selecting the best specimens of the natives, male and 
female, for breeding purposes, or whether pure-bred bulls 
be used upon native cows. 

The natives, having no fixed hereditary type, cannot be 
relied upon to perpetuate their good qualities in their off- 
spring, but having strong constitutions, the native cows 
afford an admirable basis upon which to build, by the use 
of thoroughbred bulls of those breeds which are suited to 
our climate and pasturage. 

The farmer who proposes to grade up his stock, should 
first consider well which one of the pure breeds will best 
suit his purposes, and, after once making his selection, 
adhere to that particular breed, using only thoroughbred 
bulls on both native and grade cows. There are cases in 
which it is advantageous to cross the grades with a new 
breed to accomplish a particular end, as, for instance, the 
cross of a Jersey bull upon grade Ayrshire or Short Horn 
cows, that are very deep milkers, with a view to an increase 
in the production of butter ; but, as a general rule, it is 
better to adhere to one breed and grade up to a high 
standard, combining the constitution of the native with the 
hereditary good qualities of the pure breed. 

The thoroughbred to be employed will depend of course 
upon the use that is to be made of the cattle. This each 
breeder must determine according to his surroundings and 
proximity to market. In any event, however, he must 
determine to give good attention to his stock, since the 
use of thoroughbred bulls alone, without abundant food 
and good attention, will not secure the full benefit of the 
cross. 



72 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [206] 

Good attention and abundant food are indispensable 
requisites to improvement in stock, and not only this, for 
without them deterioration is inevitable. 

With the exception of those sections in which cattle are 
turned out on the "range," the production of milk and 
butter is the leading object of the owner* of cattle in 
Georgia, and hence in the selection of bulls with which 
to grade up the natives, choice will generally be made 
from either the Jersey or Ayrshire— the former if the sale 
of butter is the object, and especial care is to be taken with 
the stock ; the latter if quantity of milk is the object, and 
reasonable care given. 

The Short Horn of milking strain will meet the latter 
requirements, in those sections of the State where the 
grasses are cultivated and abundant pasturage is available, 
but are not suited to Georgia generally, at present, on 
account of deficient pasturage. The Short Horns require 
on account of their size, more liberal feeding than the 
smaller breeds. 

If combination animals are sought the Devon cross will 
probably give satisfactory results. 

Whether resort is had to pure breeds or not, heifers for 
breeding purposes should be selected with reference to 
future usefulness for the purpose for which they are bred. 
If intended for milch cows, then those having the charac- 
teristic form and other marks indicative of future useful- 
ness at the pail should be selected. If intended for beef, 
or for rearing beef animals, then those giving promise of 
the greater development of flesh at the least cost are to 
be selected. There is generai<y too little attention paid 
to the selection of breeding animals with direct reference 
to the use to be made of them. 



[207] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 73 



CHAPTER IX. 

MANAGEMENT OF CALVES— SELECTION OF HEIFEES 
AND BULLS. 

Every true breeder appreciates the importance of proper 
attention to calves, and the influence of early treatment 
upon their future usefulness; unfortunately, however, 
calves receive but little attention at the hands of the ma- 
jority of our farmers, and too often become seriously 
stunted in their growth by neglectful treatment and insuffi- 
cient food while they are young, preventing full develop- 
ment and usefulness, whether they are intended to supply 
the dairy or the shambles. 

Few exercise any control over the time at which their 
cows drop their calves, allowing the bull constant com- 
panionship with the cows, and consequently having them 
coming in at all seasons of the year, regardless of their 
own convenience and profit, or the usefulness of the cow 
or the offspring. 

There are various considerations which should control 
the owner of cattle in determining the time at which his 
calves should be dropped, the chief among which is the 
use to be made of both dam and calf. 

If the rearing of stock for beef or sale as thoroughbreds 
or for the dairy is the object chiefly had in view, the spring 
is, beyond question, the best time, under ordinary circum- 
stances, to have calves dropped, for the following obvious 
reasons ; 

1. If they are dropped in spring after the grass has put 
forth, the cows, having succulent green food, afford an 
abundant supply of milk to give the calves a good start- 
off, and as soon as old enough, they have the advantage of 



74 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [208] 

tender pasturage — natural food, upon which they will con- 
tinue to thrive, and be in good condition to withstand the 
winter. The cows being in a healthy, thriving condition 
will naturally impart health and thrift to their offspring. 
It is important, however, that the cows be kept in good 
condition during the winter preceding their parturition, 
that the foetus may be fully developed. If cows are allowed 
to become very poor during winter, as is too often the case 
on our farms, the foetus will be dwarfed and enfeebled by 
the defective nutrition derived from the dam. 

2. The cost of keeping both cow and calf will be less 
when both have the run of pastures, than if required to 
be fed, as they would be if the calves are dropped in the 
fall. If dropped in summer, the calves go into winter 
quarters so young that their growth will receive a serious 
check during the winter, unless more care is given them 
than is usually bestowed in Georgia. 

A young animal never entirely recovers from the effects 
of such severe check to its growth as calves usually receive 
from neglect and insufficient food during winter. 

Good shelters and abundant food are, even in our mild 
winters, necessary for young calves, to prevent serious and 
irreparable injury resulting from a check in their growth, 
from the want of these. 

Green food, in the form of pastures of rye, barley, or 
oats, should invariably be supplied for calves passing their 
first winter. This may be done in any part of Georgia by 
sowing the small grain early in the fall. Dry food, how- 
ever sweet, will not answer so well for them as green pas- 
tures. 

REARING BY HAND. 

Since this method requires much care and personal 
attention, it is not likely to be adopted generally in Geor- 
gia, but for the benefit of those who are willing to take 
the necessary trouble, detailed instructions are given em- 



[2G9] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 75 

bracing the practice of the best and most successful breed- 
ers. The most approved plan is to allow the calf to fill 
itself once by sucking its mother, and then remove it, if 
possible, so far from its dam that she cannot hear its bleat- 
ings. When it has become quite hungry, teach it to drink 
the warm milk, freshly drawn from its mother, as follows : 
Back the calf into a corner, place its head between the 
knees with a pail of warm milk in front. Moisten the 
finger in the warm milk and induce the calf to suck it, 
pressing the head down at the same time and immersing 
the finger in the milk. The calf continuing to suck will 
draw the milk from the pail, and if the finger is gradually 
withdrawn, will learn to drink. This done, no further 
trouble will be experienced. 

Mr. Frank White, an eminently practical and successful 
farmer, of Hancock county, Georgia, wrote in the May 
number of Southern Enterprise ,, 1879, as follows: 

" Management of the Calves. — When the calves are 
dropped I let them remain with their mothers until dry, 
and allow them to fill themselves once with milk. Then 
I remove them from the cow, so that they can neither see 
nor hear each other. In about twelve hours, or as soon 
as the calf gets hungry, I have the cow milked and carry 
the warm milk to the calf. First get it to draw the finger, 
and, while doing so, hold the finger in the milk, or for the 
first time feed with a spoon as he draws the finger. 

"It only requires a day or two to teach them to drink 
from the bucket. I feed them their mother's milk for five 
or six days, and then give them skimmed milk, that is not 
sour, prepared as follows : Take a tablespoonful of sifted 
meal and pour over one quart of boiling water, and add sweet 
skimmed milk until the mixture is milk-warm. I feed this 
for four or five weeks, and then give sour milk or clabber, 
but always scalding the meal with boiling water, adding 
more meal as the calf gets older. 



76 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [210] 

" I have never lost a calf under this treatment, and raise 
them much finer than by the old method of letting them 
suck their mothers. Besides, they all soon become pets, 
and run for the boy who feeds them whenever they see 
him with a bucket in his hand. It is better also for the 
cows. They give more milk, which is all saved for use, 
and they are more quiet and much less trouble to manage. 
The calves too, being handled while young, make gentle, 
good cows. 

"When the calves are weaned from the bucket the pre- 
caution must be used to have either good, tender grass to 
turn them on, or have green, succulent food to give them, 
that they may not be checked in their growth." 

The advantages of this method of rearing calves, if 
proper attention is given them, are very great, and the 
trouble is no more than that accompanying the old plan 
of allowing them to suck their mothers, while both the 
calves and the mothers do better under the former plan. 

Apart from the relief from the annoyance of having 
the calf to nurse its mother at each milking, the increased 
yield of milk for dairy purposes is ample compensation 
for the trouble and expense of feeding the calf. 

Besides, heifers raised by hand make better milkers on 
account of the docility acquired by being handled while 
young. All who have had much experience with milch cows, 
appreciate the importance of having them gentle when 
they come to the pail. There is no other plan by which 
this can be more surely accomplished than by rearing by 
hand or from the pail. 

In a large part of Georgia, especially in the wire-grass 
and mountain region, this plan is, of course, impractica- 
ble, since there the calves run with their mothers on the 
range, where they are seldom even seen by their owners, 
and the calves allowed to take all the milk. 

If proper provision is made for wintering the cows and 



[211] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 77 

calves ; if good warm shelters are provided, sufficient to 
protect them from cold rains and winds, and a liberal area 
sown in small grain to supply green pastures, or green cut- 
food, during the late fall, winter, and early spring, taking the 
mildness of our climate into consideration, calves dropped 
in the fall may be made to do quite as well as those dropped 
in the spring. This, however, will necessitate better pro- 
vision for them and more attention than is generally made 
or bestowed in Georgia. 

If, however, farmers will provide suitable shelter and 
abundant winter pastures, so that the calves may go upon 
grass in the spring in good thrifty condition, there is no 
reason why a large proportion of the calves may not be 
dropped in the fall. 

Besides this, the price of dairy products being higher 
in winter than summer, if pastures are provided for the 
cows also, the annual profits of the dairy may be materially 
increased by having the most of the cows come in during 
the fall. This branch of the subject will be more fully 
discussed in the chapter on the Dairy. 

SELECTING BULL CALVES. 

When the fact that the bull impresses his peculiar char- 
acteristics upon such a large number of calves, is consid- 
ered, the importance of selecting the best specimens for 
the purpose of propagating their kind, will be appreciated. 

While not even the most experienced and practiced eye 
can foresee what will be the development of any particu- 
lar calf, some idea may be formed, however, of the char- 
acter of the future bull from that of the calf. 

The selection should be controlled by the use to be 
made of the offspring of the animal. 

If the bull is to be used in a dairy herd, selection should 
be made of a calf from a line of cows having a good 
milk record. It will not be enough that his immediate dam 



78 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [212] 

shall have been remarkable for milk production, since that 
may have been accidental ; but it must have been a fixed 
characteristic of his female ancestry, and he will be the 
more certain to give satisfaction if his sire was noted for 
getting good dairy stock. The calf himself should not 
have the heavy points peculiar to his sex too prominently 
developed, but should have evidences of a strong consti- 
tution and good digestive organs. 

After the selection is made, such attention should be 
given as will insure continuous thrifty growth without 
over-feeding or pampering. 

If beef-production is the leading object had in view, a 
different type of calf should be selected, giving promise 
of greater size, more muscular development, and a greater 
tendency to take on flesh. Constitutional vigor is a neces- 
sary requisite in any animal selected for the purpose of 
propagating its species, no matter to what use its offspring 
are to be devoted. 

As has been already remarked, selection may improve 
the common cattle, but there is no certainty of the trans- 
mission of their good qualities. Without selection, any 
herd, no matter how carefully it has been bred in the past, 
will rapidly deteriorate. 



CHAPTER X. 

MANAGEMENT OF MILCH COWS— THE RELATION OF 
THE COW TO CIVILIZATION. 

Like the Irish cottager's pig, the cow is almost a mem- 
ber of the family, so close is her relation to their daily 
support, and her usefulness will be proportionate to the 
care, kindness, and intelligent attention bestowed upon 
her. There is no other animal which contributes in so 



[213] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 79 

many and in such important respects to the comfort and 
happiness of man. Cattle contribute in more ways to 
production, consumption, and manufactures than any other 
domestic animal. 

Oxen contribute their labor to man's assistance, and 
when too old to serve in this capacity, they are still as val- 
uable as ever, if made fat, to contribute their flesh for 
food, and other products to manufactures. Cattle contrib- 
ute to man's use beef, butter, cheese, milk in various forms, 
and tallow; their hides, converted into leather, shoe the 
human race, their horns are largely used in manufactures, 
and with the hoofs furnish an inferior source of nitrogen ; 
their bones furnish to commerce phosphoric acid and 
nitrogen ; the dried blood from the slaughter-houses fur- 
nishes an important source of nitrogen to the manufacturers 
of commercial fertilizers ; their hair is used in the manu- 
facture of some coarse fabrics and by plasterers to increase 
the cohesive power of their mortar. Every farmer fully 
appreciates the value of their manure ; indeed, in some of 
the countries of Europe the graziers and feeders of beet 
cattle consider the manure from their fat cattle a reasona- 
ble compensation for the expense and trouble of feeding. 
Much of the gelatine of commerce is made from the hides 
and feet of cattle, and especially from those of calves. 

It will be seen, therefore, that no other animal yields so 
many or such valuable contributions to the necessities and 
comforts of the human family. 

This being true, it is not unreasonable to demand for 
cattle generally such care and attention as will increase 
their power of contributing to man's wants. Such Care, 
though prompted by the plainest dictates of self-interest, 
is seldom bestowed by the Southern farmer. It is even 
rare that the 

milch cow 
receives such attention as to secure her maximum useful- 
ness, notwithstanding the fact that she reminds her owner 



80 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [21^] 

of her wants, as well as of her usefulness, by her daily- 
contributions to his table. 

If this chapter shall induce the owners of cows in Geor- 
gia to bestow better attention upon these useful animals, 
its object will have been accomplished ; the farmers of the 
State will enjoy increased comfort, pleasure, and profit, 
the Commonwealth will have better and happier citizens, 
and will receive, through increased revenue from the en- 
hanced value of live stock, more than enough annually to 
pay the cost of this Manual. There are about 300,000 
milch cows in Georgia. By judicious selection, good feed- 
ing, and proper care, an average increase of one quart in 
the daily yield of milk per cow may be effected beyond all 
question, and, in many instances, an increase of four quarts 
will result. An increase, however, of one quart per day 
for four months would be 120 quarts per cow per annum, 
or 30 gallons per cow each year. For the 300, 000 cows, 
this would give an increase of 9,000,000 gallons, which at 
an average price of ten cents per gallon (it retails in 
Atlanta at 40 cents per gallon) would give an aggregate 
increase in the value of the milk product of the State of 
$900,000.00 a year, or $3.00 per cow. 

There are in the State about 500,000 cattle, other than 
milch cows, whose value would be increased by better 
care, at a very low estimate, $1.00 per head, or in the 
aggregate $500, 000. These are low estimates, easily real- 
ized, and yet they figure up for the State nearly a million 
and a-half dollars. It is safe to say that with proper care 
the additional manure saved would be worth to the State 
$100,000. 

Every one, who has observed such matters at all, has 
noticed the superiority of the cows about the villages and 
cities over those of the country, owing mainly to the 
better attention given them. 

The same difference is seen in the country on adjacent 
farms with equal facilities for rearing stock, the difference 



[215] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 81 

in results and profits being entirely due to better attention 
on one than on the other, to selection, food, shelter, and 
general care of the cows. 

The questions of breed and breeding having been dis- 
cussed in other chapters, they will be introduced here only 
so far as may be necessary to elucidate the subject in hand. 
The discussion, too, will be applicable only to such cows 
as are bred and kept for their milk, and not to those that 
are kept solely for the purpose of rearing calves, as is the 
case "on the range " in Southern Georgia. 

ON THE SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF HEIFER CALVES 

Will depend, in a considerable degree, the success with 
dairy cows. Although native, or low grade cattle have 
not the power of transmitting, with certainty their good 
qualities, other things being equal, it is well to give pref. 
erence to calves out of the best milkers, though attention 
should be given to form and other peculiarities which give 
promise of usefulness at the pail. Among these are the 
color of the skin, breadth of hips, taper of neck and head, 
large stomach, development of the '* escutcheon/' or 
"milk mirror" (discussed in another chapter), and general 
feminine appearance, as distinguished from masculine and 
beefy characteristics. 

Those which make the most rapid growth, and take on 
flesh most kindly are not necessarily the ones to be selected 
as the future milch cows, but on the contrary, unless pos- 
sessing other indications of future usefulness at the pail, 
are to be rejected. Other things being equal, cows of 
gentle, quiet disposition, give best results at the pail, and 
hence calves should be subjected to gentle and kind treat- 
ment while young, and, where practicable, accustomed to 
the halter while young and easily managed. 

They should be kept in a thrifty, growing condition, 
without pampering on the one hand, or neglect on the 



82 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [216] 

other. If pampered, there is risk of impairing their 
health, while nc^!ect, and the resulting check in growth, 
will reduce the size of the animal, delay breeding, and 
thus postpone the commencement of their usefulness, and 
diminish the profit derived from them. 

The age at which they should be allowed to breed will depend 
upon the breed, the use to be made of them — some breeds 
being habitually more precocious than others — and upon 
the keep and thrift of the individual. As a general prin- 
ciple, if the owner has no preference as to the season of 
the year in which the calves are to be dropped, it is well 
to let natural causes control the time at which heifers will 
commence to breed, provided they have abundant food 
and good attention, both during the period of gestation 
and while rearing the first calf. Under natural circum- 
stances they will seldom commence to breed too early for 
their own proper development, or the profit of their own- 
ers. 

Early breeding is desirable, if the heifers are so well fed, 
or have access to such pasturage, as will prevent a serious 
check to their growth, since the early exercise of their 
milk-producing powers, while yet growing, will more fully 
develop these powers, and establish the habit while still 
impressible. 

Nature indicates by the desire for the male on the part 
of heifers the earliest period at which they can commence 
to breed. If milk is the object in view, this impulse need 
not be restrained, except to control the time of parturition. 

THE AVERAGE PERIOD OF GESTATION, 284 DAYS. 

This varies with individuals, but calculations should be 
based on the average, and the male admitted as nearly as 
the natural periods of desire (which occur about every 
twenty-one days), will admit, that length of time before it 
is desired to have the calf dropped. 



^_2i 7j A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 83 

One or two connections with the male will be as effectual 
as more, if the cow is removed from the annoyance of 
other cattle until her passion passes off. 

Our native cattle that are well treated and supplied with 
abundant food from calf-hood, will usually, if left to their 
natural instincts, drop calves when from two to three years 
of age. The Jerseys, unless restrained, usually bear at a 
much earlier age than any other breed, many of them 
dropping calves at the age of 15 to 18 months. In South- 
ern Georgia, where cattle use upon "the range," without 
attention, they usually do not commence to breed until 
more than two years of age, and often not until they are 
three or more years old. If beef animals are to be reared 
heifers should be well grown before commencing to breed, 
but there are several material advantages in having those 
intended for the dairy commence breeding ±arly. The 
heifer that commences to breed very young ha^, her milk- 
producing faculties more fully developed than one that 
does not commence until her growth is fully attained. One 
that drops a calf at two years old commences one year 
earlier to return pre fits to her owner than one that drops 
one at three years of age, reaches the period of greatest 
usefulness earlier, will usually, other things being equal, 
make a more docile and profitable cow ; and, as far as ob- 
servation goes, continue profitable at the pail to an equally 
advanced age. 

TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING. 

No special attention is necessary during pregnancy, ex- 
cept to keep the cow in a healthy, thrifty condition, until a 
week or two previous to calving, when stimulating food 
should be withheld for a week or two previous to the time 
when the record, if one is kept, shows the calf is due. If 
no record of the date of service by the male has been kept, 
the springing of the udder will indicate the approach of 



84 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [218] 

parturition. If there is such an accumulation of mik in 
the udder before calving as to cause risk of fever, or garget* 
a sufficient quantity of milk should be drawn daily to re- 
lieve the distention and remove all danger of inflammation 
or caking of the udder. There is a very general impres- 
sion that drawing the milk before calving causes serious in- 
jury to the calf, since the first milk is (correctly) supposed 
to have medicinal properties beneficial to the calf. Expe- 
rience, however, of the best and most careful breeders has 
demonstrated that no injury results to the calf from such a 
course, while the safety of the cow, especially if a deep 
milker,often demands it. Besides, all of the milk is not taken 
at any one time before calving, so that the calf is in fact 
not deprived of the benefits of the first milk. If cows are 
properly fed before calving, on food moderately laxative, or 
have the run of pasture, not one in a thousand will expe- 
rience any difficulty in calving. Heifers with their first 
calf are more liable to be troubled with caked bag, or gar- 
get than older cows, and deep mikers are more subject to 
it than poor ones. 

Close attention, however, should be given to all cows 
/bra few days before and after calving, but there should be 
no interference with nature unless absolutely necessary, 
and then nature's process should be aided, not forced. 
Drawing a portion of the milk hefore calving will usually 
prevent all danger of injury to the bag. The milk, how- 
ever, will not always flow, though the udder is distended 
and hard. In speaking of such cases, Allen says : "A 
washing of salt and water, weak soap-suds, or bath- 
ing in water alone is good. An ointment of camphor, 
mixed with cream or hog's lard, or fresh butter, may be 
used, well rubbed in by hand all over the udder and teats. 
These failing, a sack or woolen cloth — part of an old blank- 
et or carpet — may be made large enough to enclose the 
udder and forward along the belly, and in rear up into the 



[219] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 85 

twist, secured by strapping it over her back. This sack 
should then be kept thoroughly saturated with mildly 
warm water, which may quite relieve her difficulty, when 
the washes and ointments fail." 

Mr. Peters uses in such cases hog's lard and arnica. He 
says, in " Southern Enterprise," "Melt the lard and pour 
in the arnica, equal quantities of each — rub the cow's bag 
with this three times a day." He has used this repeatedly 
with most satisfactory results If cows are properly man- 
aged before calving, however, they will usually pass 
through parturition safely, and without assistance from the 
keeper. When the calf is dropped the dam should be al- 
lowed to follow her natural instincts, and lick it dry. This 
removes the slimy coatings, and her breath warms the new- 
comer, who is soon able to stand and find the teat, which 
it does instinctively. A soon as the calf has sucked all it 
needs, the udder of the cow should be milked to empti- 
ness. A warm bran mash, diluted with blood-warm water, so 
that it may be drank, should be given at the first milking, 
and if the cow appears much weakened by the trying or- 
deal through which she has passed, this may be repeated 
for several days until she gives evidence of restored 
strength. Tiie udder should be entirely emptied twice a 
day, and as soon as all fever has subsided the quantity of 
food should be increased, or free access to pasture allowed. 
If the placenta is voided promptly, as it will usually be by 
a healthy cow, it should be immediately removed and 
buried. If a portion of it remains hanging in the vulva, 
as it will often do in cows in Iojv condition, no violence 
should be used in removing it, but a laxative drink, such as 
boiled flax-seed, salts or meal gruel should be given. Only 
in exceptional cases, however, will more than ordinary pru- 
dence and care be necessary. The quantity and strength 
of the food given should be gradually increased, using care 
never to give more than will be consumed with a relish. If 



86 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [220]- 

given in excess the appetite will be cloyed, and a reduction 
in the flow of milk, if not sickness, result 

Animals, like men, prefer a varied diet, and thrive better 
on a variety of food, even if not so rich, than upon the 
same rations day after day. A cow turned into a pasture, 
in which there is variety, will not confine herself to any 
one plant, but will partake of the grasses, clover and 
weeds apparently with equal relish, and will consume 
much mjre in consequence of the variety. In the spring v 
when vegetation is very succulent, a little corn meal and 
wheat bran, one part by measure of the former to two of 
the latter, given twice daily, will conduce to both health 
and profit. 

Gentle treatment of milch cows is of much greater im- 
portance than is generally understood by owners of cattle. 
Cows should never be struck nor scolded while being 
milked. A full flow of healthy milk need not be expected 
from cows that are excited to fear by ill treatment. The 
utmost gentleness, kindness and quiet should be exercised 
by the milkers. 

Punctuality as to the time of feeding and milking is also 
important. Cows acquire habits and become restless if 
not fed or milked at the hour at which they expect it.. 
Quiet, contentment and regularity of habit ure necessary to 
secure the maximum yield of either beef or milk. 

Thorough milking is another essential to success in dairy- 
ing It will be in vain to secure fine stock and feed liber- 
ally if the milking is not thoroughly and regularly done. 
Milk left in the udder will either be re -absorbed, or be- 
come caked and injure the bag. In either case a reduction 
in the flow of milk results. In all cases where cows are 
driven to the lot to be milked, each should have her stall 
under a shelter, close overhead, but well ventilated at the 
sides. A little meal and bran should be placed in a tub or 
trough in each stall before the cows are turned in. Each 



[221] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 87 

cow will soon learn to go quietly to her stall, where she 
should be at once secured by a rope or stanchel. The ra- 
tions of meal will not only induce the cows to go willingly 
to their stalls, but will increase the flow, improve the qual- 
ity of the milk and prevent scouring, so common when 
cattle feed entirely upon grass. 

Cleanliness, both in the management of the cows and 
in milking, should be scrupulously observed. The stalls 
should be kept clean and free from all offensive odors, and 
the milker should be provided with water and a cloth with 
which to thoroughly cleanse the udder and teats before 
milking. No matter what one's fondness for milk, his 
stomach would naturally revolt against drinking that 
drawn from a cow whose sides are caked with manure, or 
whose escutcheon is coated with ticks, and yet how often 
do we see cows in one or the other condition. 

The treatment of milk subsequent to drawing from the 
udder will be noticed under the chapter on " Milking and 
Management of the Milk." Young cows with their first 
calves require especial attention. They are then in a form- 
ative stage, so far as the development of their milk-pro- 
ducing capacity is concerned, and should receive that treat- 
ment which will best conduce to such development. They 
should be well fed, thoroughly milked, kindly and gently 
handled, and kept at the pail as long as practicable to ac- 
quire proper habits. If they have been accustomed to the 
halter from calfhood there will be but little difficulty, 
either in their management, or in establishing such habits 
as will render them useful animals during the remainder of 
their lives. 

A mistake very common in the South is keeping more 
cows than can be properly cared for. Cattle poorly fed 
and cared for are seldom profitable, while there is no ani- 
mal which gives a more profitable return for food and at- 
tention than a good cow. 



88 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [222] 

The following schedule of values, graded according to 
the yield^of milk, will be suggestive to those farmers who 
keep large herds of inferior cattle. If cows are kept for 
their milk, and valued solely on account of their yield in 
this respect, one that yields one gallon of milk daily is worth 
about $10.00, less than her value as beef when fat, if of or- 
dinary size. One that will yield two gallons daily will be 
worth $20.00, three gallons $45.00, four gallons, $75,000, 
rive gallons $120.00, and six gallons $200.00. This may 
seem at the first glance somewhat arbitrary, but when re- 
duced to a calculation will be found to be based on sound 
reason. It will require the same outlay for food, the same 
attention, and the same house-room for the cow whose 
capacity is one gallon as for one yielding six gallons per 
day.'JIThe one gallon cow will not pay for her food and 
attention unless she runs on the commons during summer 
and'in the swamp in winter. If one gallon is the limit of 
her milking capacity, extra feeding will only improve her 
condition as a beef animal, and the sooner she is con- 
verted into beef, the better for her owner. Ordinarily one 
good cow, well fed and cared for, will not only prove 
more s profitable to her owner than three inferior ones poorly 
fed and^cared for, but yield as much milk in quantity 
and of far better quality. 

FEEDING THE COWS. 

A milch cow should be regarded as a complicated piece 
of animated machinery peculiarly adapted for supplying 
food for man, and dependent upon him to a large extent 
for the food necessary to insure her maximum usefulness. 
It should be remembered that the cow, in her natural state, 
yields only enough milk to supply the calf, and that for 
only a few months, until its stomach is prepared to digest 
the natural food of adult cattle. The large yield of milk 
gotten from cows is due to the effects of domestication, 



|_223J A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 89 

care and selection. The modern cow is in an abnormal con- 
dition produced by man's skill, from which there is a con- 
stant tendency to return or deteriorate to the normal state. 
To maintain, therefore, the vantage ground now occupied, 
the exercise of the same skill that has been used in the im- 
provement must be exercised in its perpetuation. The 
best herd in America, turned out on the commons to eke 
out a bare livelihood, will rapidly degenerate into mere 
scrubs inferior to the common native cattle of the country, 
which have more vigorous constitutions and are better able 
from habit to endure neglect. 

The fact that both the quantity and quality of milk are 
influenced by the abundance and character of the food con- 
sumed by cows, is well known to every one who has ever 
owned a cow ; but very few make the most profitable use 
of such information. 

Numerous instances have been brought to the notice of 
the writer, in which the owners of valuable cows, desirous 
of rapidly increasing the flow and improving the quality of 
the milk, have defeated their object and injured their cows 
by ignorance of the character of their stomachs. 

The cow has tour stomachs : The first and largest, the 
rumen, or "paunch," into which the food is deposited 
when first swallowed with very little mastication, is the 
largest, and occupies the larger portion of the abdominal 
cavity. The food, after passing through this cavity and 
into the reticulum or second stomach, remains until the 
animal has a period of rest, when rumination, commonly 
called "chewing the cud," commences. The aesophagus 
gullet or duct leading from the pharynx to the upper ori- 
fice of the stomach, has an opening into each stomach. 
Solid food, however, when first swallowed, invariably pass- 
es into the rumen or paunch in which it is passed around 
through its different compartments, and finally forced, by 
combined peristaltic and spasmodic action, a pellet at a 



00 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [224] 

time, into the second stomach or reticulum t whence the 
pellets are, by a contraction of the reticulum, forced again 
up the aesophagus into the mouth for more thorough mas. 
tication. This done it is swallowed, and being now softer 
and more pliant, passes down to the manyplus, or third 
stomach, in which it is still further comminuted and reduc- 
ed to a pulpy mass, when it is passed on to the fourth 
stomach, or abomasum, in which the process of digestion 
proper takes place under the agency of the gastric juice, 
which converts the food thus prepared by the first three 
stomachs into a fluid called chyme. Thus reduced to a 
solution the food passes through the pyloric, or lower ori- 
fice of the stomach, into the first intestine or duodenum 
"where its separation into the nutritive and innutritive 
portions is effected and the former begins to^.be taken up 
and carried into the system." 

Now if a cow is fed too exclusively upon concentrated food 
the rumen or first stomach is not sufficiently distended for 
healthy peristaltic action, and the food is passed through 
without proper and thorough digestion. The cow, as well 
as other ruminants, is supplied with the rumen or large re- 
ceptacle for the purpose of storing and preparing large 
quantities of *' roughness" and should be fed in accordance 
with these indications of nature. The natural food of the 
cow is green grass, and if she can get a plenty of this she 
needs nothing more. In our climate the provident farmer 
can have an abundance of green food every day in the year. 
During the summer months it will not be necessary to feed 
if good pastures are provided, though a small ration of 
bran and pea-meal or bran and corn-meal, three quarts of 
the bran to one of the meal, twice a day, will prove bene- 
ficial when the grass is unusually succulent in spring, or 
rendered so by excessive rain during summer. Another 
advantage of feeding daily throughout the year is, that the 
cows, r f turned to pasture during the day, will come to be 



[225] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 91 

fed punctually at the hour for milking, and will submit 
more quietly to being milked if engaged in eating at the 
same time. Bran and boiled cotton-seed or bran and 
cotton seed meal, three quarts of bran to one-half gallon 
of the seed, or three quarts of bran to one pint of the meal, 
answer a good purpose. 

On every farm on which milch cows are kept in Georgia, 
and especially in the cotton belt, where no especial atten- 
tion is given to providing pasturage, a small area of rich 
land should be devoted to seme forage crop with which to 
supplement the pastures in case of severe drouth and conse- 
quent iailure of pastures. Frequent sowings of drilled corn 
or several plantings of cat tail millet will answer the pur- 
pose. The preference should be given to the drilled corn, 
from the fact that if not needed for feeding green it makes 
better cured fjdder than the millet. It often happens, 
when no provision of this kind is made, that cows fall back 
in their milk on short pasturage and never recover after the 
grass becomes abundant. Fodder corn, or millet fed at 
such times would prevent such loss. 

Provision should be made also for supplementing pas- 
turage in the early fall before pea fields are opened. Mil- 
let and pea-vines cut and fed night and morning will best 
serve for this purpose. Late sown drilled corn is usually 
destroyed by the boll or com worm and hence cannot be 
relied upon. 

For a supply of green food during winter and spring a 
quarter of an acre of rich land for each milch cow kept, 
should be thickly sown in rye or barley, or both mixed. 
This should not be pastured but cut and fed to the cows 
twice a day, in connection with dry roughness of some 
kind, and a mixture of bran with some kind of meal or 
cotton seed or cotton seed meal. Turnips, parsnips, pump- 
kins, sweet potatoes, beets or collard leaves may be used 
in connection with the green small grain and dry food, 



•92 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [226] 

There need be no difficulty about having plenty of ap- 
propriate food for cows in Georgia if advantage is taken 
of our advantages of soil and climate. 

One acre of small grain cut and fed to cows will supply 
as many as four acres, pastured in the usual way. 

Rye sown very thick early in September or the latter 
part of August on rich or well manured land will be ready 
for cutting for feeding purposes by the 15th of November, 
and may be cut daily from that date, (except in unusually 
cold spells when it is better not to disturb it) until May, 
when the ground may be planted in another crop. 

When pastured, the hoofs of the cattle destroy much 
of the tender grain besides, except when the ground is 
quite dry, injuring the soil. Again, the cut grain may be 
fed regularly, while the cows are often deprived of the 
pasturage for weeks at a time, when the ground is too 
wet to admit them without injury to the soil. For the 
last two winters the writer has cut rye daily (except a few 
days when frozen) from the 15th of November to the May 
following. 

The same area grazed would not have supplied pastur- 
age one-fourth of the time. There is no excuse, there- 
fore, for a scarcity of milk nor for any farmer to have in- 
ferior butter upon his table at any season of the year in 
any section of Georgia, and yet so little attention is given 
to dairy eows and dairy products that "country butter" 
has become synonymous with "poor butter." Those 
who give proper attention to feeding and milking their 
cows, and to the management of the milk and butter, pro- 
duce as fine an article as can be found anywhere, but such 
are, as yet, the exceptions. 

The following tables of ' nutritive values of different 
feeding stuffs" will be useful to those who desire to give 
attention to economical feeding; 



[227] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 93 

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT FEEDING STUFFS. 
Prof. W. O. Atwater, of Counecticut, reported the following 
tables to the American Agriculturist during the early part of this 
year. They will repay careful study : 

TABLE No. 1. 
Average Composition, Digestibility and Money Value, as given by Dr. 
Wolff, for Germany, 1880, in Farmer's Almanac. 
I.- Hay. 



KIND OF FODDER. 



Meadow Hay, poor . . 
" a medium . 

" " very good 

Red clover, poor . . . 

" u medium . 

" " very good . 
White Clover, medium. 
Lucerne, medium. . . 
Swedish (Alsike) Clover 
Fodder Vetch, medium. 
Peas iu bloom. . . . 

Fodder Rye 

Timothy 

Italian Rye Grass . . . 
Upland Grasses, average 
Hungarian Grass . . . 



PER CENT— ORGANIC SUBSTANCE. 



14.3 
14.3 
15.0 
15.0 
16.0 
16.5 
16.5 
16.0 
16.0 
16.7 
16.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
13.4 



■n 
<_ 

5.0 

6.2 
7.0 
5.1 

5.3 



11 
11 
12 
6.0:13 
6.014 



Total. 



6.2 
6.0 
8.3 
7.0 
5.1 
4.5 
7.8 
5.8 
5.7 



33.5 
26.3 
21.9 

28.9 
260 
24.0 



38.2 
41.4 
41.6 
37.7 

38.2 
37.1 



25.6133.9 
33 27.9 
27.0,32.7 

25.532.8 

28.234.2 

23.1 '44.5 
22.7 45.8 



2 22.9 
5 28.7 
8 29.4 



40.6 
39.1 

38.5 



1.5 

25 
2.8 
2.1 
2.2 
2.«.i 
3.5 
2.5 
3.3 
2.5 
2.6 
2.8 
3.0 
3.2 
2.6 
2.2 



Digestible. 



■d M 



34.9 
41.0 
41.7 
37.9 
38.1 
38.2 
35.9 
28.3 
34.8 
32.5 
4 33.1 
44.3 
43.4 
41.5 
40.9 



.141.0 



0.510, 
1.0 8, 



1.3 
1.0 
1.2 
1.7 
2.0 
1.0 
1.8 
1.5 
1.6 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.1 
0.9 



0.48 

0.64 

0.75 

0.59 

0.70 

0.79 

0:0.76 

30.71 

6 0.76 

910.77 

0,0.77 

20.72 

.10 70 

.310.74 

.20.64 

.10.66 



II .— Green Fodder. 



Grass just before bloom 
Pasture Grass . . . 
Rich Pasture Grass . . 
Italian Rye Grass . . . 
Timothy Grass . . . , 
Upland Grasses, average 

Fodder Rye 

Fodder Oats 

Fodder Corn .... 

Sorghum 

Hungarian, in blossom 
Pasture Clover, young . 
Red Clover, before blossom 
Red Clover, in full blossom . 



75.0 


2.1 


3.0 


6.0 


13.1 


0.8 


2.0 


13.0 


0.4 


7.0 


80.0 


2.0 3.5 


4.0 


9.7 


0.8 


2.5 


9.9 


0.4 


4.4 


78.2 


2.2 4.5 


4.0 


10.1 


1.0 


3.4 


10.9 


0.6 


3.6 


73.4 


2.8 3.6 


7.1 


12.1 


1.0 


2.3 


12.6 


0.4 


5.9 


70.0 


2.2 


3.4 


8.0 


16.3 


1.1 


2.1 


16.0 


0.5 


8.2 


70.0 


2.1 


3.4 


10.1 


13.4 


1.0 


1.9 


14.2 


0.5 


8.1 


76.0 


1.6 3.3 


7.9 


10.4 


0.8 


1.9 


11.0 


0.4 


6.3 


81.0 


1.4 2.3 


6.5 


8.3 


0.5 


1.3 


8.9 


0.2 


7.2 


82.9 


1.3 1.2 


5.2 


8.8 


0.6 


0.7 8.4 


0.3 


13.0 


77.3 


1.1 


2.5 


6.7 


11.7 


0.7 


1.611.9 


03 


7.4 


75.0 


1.8 


3.1 


8.5 


10.9 


0.7 


1.8 


11.8 


0.3 


7.0 


83.0 


1.5 


4.6 


2.8 


7.2 0.9 


3.6 


7.4 0.6 


2.5 


83.0 


1.5 


3.3 


4.5 


7.0| 0.7 


2.3 


7.4| 0.5 


3.8 


80.4 


1.3 


3.0 


5.8 


8.9 


0.6 


1.7 


8.7 


0.4 


5.7 



0.22 
0.21 
0.27 
0.23 
0.28 
0.23 
0.20 
0.15 
0.12 
0.19 
0.20 
0.25 
0.19 
0.17 



34 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [228] 

TABLE No. 1.— Green Fodder.— Continued. 



KIND OF FODDER 



White Clover, in blossom . 
Alsike Clover, beginning of blossom 
Lucerne, " " 

Fodder Vetch, " " 

Fodder Peas in blossom . . 
Buckwheat in blossom . . 

Fodder cabbage 

Carrot leaves 

Rutabaga leaves 

Fermented Corn Fodder . 



PER CENT 


-ORGANIC SUBSTANCE. 






Toted. 


Digestive. 


i-d 




■g 

A 




00 


03 0) 






A 

CQ 


§ 

s 



A 

< 


6 

A 


c3 
O no 

o 


1 


O 

a 

1 

< 


11 


33 


80.5 


2.0 


3.5 


6.0 


72 


0.8 


2.2 


7.9 


0.5 


85.0 


1.5 


3.3 


4.5 


5.1 


0.6 


2.1 


5.8 


0.4 


74.0 


2.0 


4.5 


9.5 


9.2 


0.8 


3.2 


9.1 


0.3 


82.0 


1.8 


3.5 


5.5 


6.6 


06 


2.5 


6.7 


0.3 


81.5 


1.5 


3.2 


5.6 


7.6 


0.6 


2.2 


74 


0.3 


S5.0 


1.4 


2.4 


4.2 


6.4 


0.6 


1.5 


6.6 


0.4 


84.7 


1.6 


2.5 


2.4 


8.1 


0.7 


1.8 


8.2 


0.4 


82.2 


3.6 


3.2 


3.0 


7.1 


1.0 


2.2 


7.0 


0.5 


88.4 


2 3 


2.1 


1.6 


5.2 


0.5 


1.5 


5.1 


0.3 


78.6 


1.7 


1.2 


1 8.4 


9.0 


1.1 


©.7 


10.4 


0.5 



4.20.16 
3.20.17 
3.10.23 
3.00.18 
3.7|0.1s 
5.IO.I4 
5.20.17 
3.80.1s 
3.90.12 
16.6 0.1 5 



III. — Straw. 



Winter Wheat 


14.3, 4.6 


3.0i40.0 


36.9 1.2, 0.835.6 


0.4 45.8 0.37 


Winter Bye 


14.3 4.1 


3.044.0 


33.3 


1.3 ! 0.8.36.5 


0.446.9J0.35 


Summer Barley 


14.3 4.1 


3 5 40.0 


36.7 


1.4 1.3 40.6 


0.5 32.2,0.44 


Oat 


14.3 


4.0 


4.039.5 


36.2 2.0' 1.4|40.1 


0.7;29.9i0.45 


Fodder Vetch 


16.0 


4.5 


7.542.0 


29.0 1.0, 3.431.9 


0.5 9.SJ0.46 


Pea 


16.0 


4.5 


6.5 38.0,34.01 1.0! 2.9|33.4 


0.512.0 0.44 


Field Bean 


16.0 


4.6 


10.234.0 


34.2; 1.0 5.0 35 2 


0.5 ! 7.3-0.55 


Seed Clover 


16.0' 5.6 


9 4 42.0 


25.0 2.0 4.228.5 


0.0 ! 7.4;0.49 


Corn Stalks. 


15.0| 4.2 


3.0 40.0 


36.71 1.0! 1.1|37.0 


0.3 34.4j0.39 



Chaff, Hulls, etc 










Wheat 


14.3 


9.2] 4.6,36.0,34.6 


1.4 


1.4 32.8, 0.4 


24.1 


C.37 


Bye 


14 3 
14.3 


7.5 3.6,43.529.9 
10.0 4.034.036.2 


1.2 
1.5 


1.1;34.9 0.4 

1.6 ! 36.6 0.6 


32.6 

23.8 


37 


Oats 


0.39 


Barlev 


14.3 


13.0 3.030.038.2 


1.5 


1.235.0 0.6 


30.4 


0.38 


Pea 


15.0 


6.0 8.l|32.0 ! 36.9 


2.0 


4.0 36.2 1.2 


9.8 


0.55 


Bean 


15.0 


5.510.5 33.0 34.0 


2.0 


5.134.7| 1.2 


7.4 


0.53 


Corn Cobs 


14.0 


2.8 1.4'37.8'42.6 


1.4 


0.6,41.71 0.4 


71.' 


0.41 



Roots and Tubers. 



Potatoes 

Jerusalem Artichokes 
Fodder Beets . . . 
Sugar Beets . . . , 

Carrots 

Rutabagas .... 

Turnips 

Parsnips 



75.0| 
80.01 

88.0 
81.5 
85.0! 
87.0] 
92.0 
88. 3 ! 



0.9 


1.1, 1.1.21.7 


0.2 


1.1 


22.8 


0.2 


1.0 


2.0 1.3 15.5 


0.2 


2.0 


16.8. 0.2 


0.8 


0.5 0.9 9.7 


0.1 


0.5 


10.6 


0.1 


0.7 


1.0 1.3 15.4 


0.1 


1.0 


16 7 


0.1 


0.9 


1.4: 1.7;10.8 


0.2 


1.4 


12.5 


0.2 


1.0 


1.3 1.1 9.5 


0.1 


1.3 


10.6 


0.11 


0.7 


1.1 0.8] 5-3 


0.1 


1.1 


6.1 


0.1 


0.7 


1.6 1.010.2 


0.2 


1.6 


11.2 


0.2| 



.6:0.26 
.7 0.24 
.70.12 
.0 0.19 
30.18 
.3 0.15 
8J0.11 
30.18 



[229] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



95 



TABLE No. 1.— Continued. 
Grains and Fruits. 





PER < 


:eni 


.— OKGANIC SUBSTANCE. 


CO 

< 

I 

.2 


f 








Total. 


Digestible . 


1 

OB 


KIND OF FODDEK. 


rs 




>> 






to 






O 
O 








o 

pi 




a* . 




O 


13 SB 




03 

> 






o> 
"a 


si 

< 




05 


S3 8« 

■S-3 





< 


-a .5 


03 




J? 

"3 


Wheat 


14.4 


1.7J13.0 


3.066.4 


1.5 


11.7 64.3 


1.2 


578 


1.13 


Bye 


14.3 


1.811.0 
2.210.0 


3.5167.4 


2.0 


9.965.4 


1.6 


7.0.1.08 


Barley 


14.3 


7.163.9 


2.5 


8.058.9 


1.7 


7.9 0.95 


Oata , . . 


14.3 


2.712.0 


9.355.7 


6.0 


9.043.31 4.7 


6.l|0.98 


Indian Corn 


14.4 


1.510.0 


5.562.1 


6.5 


8.4'60.6 4.8 


8.6,1.11 


Buckwheat 


14.0 


1.81 9.0 


1 5:0 58.7 


1.5 


6.8|47.0 


1.2 


7.4,0.77 


Rice, bulled ...... 


14.0 


0.5' 7.7 


2.2,75.2 


0.4 


6.972.7 


0.3] ©7|0.96 


Peas ...«,..... 


14.3 


2.4122.4 


6.452.5 


2.0 20.2 54 4 


1.7 


2.91.44 


Field Beans 


14.5 


3.125.5 


9.4,45.9 


1.623.050.2 


1.4 


•^3 '1.51 


Linseed 


12.3 


3.420.5 


7.2 19.6 37.0|17.218.9 


35.2 


- J2.47 


Rape seed 


11.8 


3.9119.4 


10.3|l2.1'42.5 15.5 10.2 


40.4 


-.2.55 


Hemp seed ....... 


12.2 


4.5 ! 16.3 


12.121.3 33.612.2 


162 


30.2 


... 2.01 


Cotton seed 


7.7 


7.8 


22.8 


16.0:15.4 30.3 


17.1 


14.7 


27.3 


... 2.08 


Apples and Pears .... 


83.1 


0.4 


0.4 


4.311.81 ... 


0.312.9 




43.00.13 


Pumpkin? 


89.1 


1.0 


0.6 


2.7 : 6.5! 0.1 


0.4 1 7.1 


0.1 


18,40.08 



IV. — Manufacturing and TYasth: Products, etc. 



Sugar Beet cake 

x> e ' [Residue from man- 
Wheat juncture of starch. 
Brewers' Grains .... 

Malt Sprouts 

Wheat Brun, line .... 
!' " coarse . . 

Rye Bran 

Wheat Meal 

Indian Corn Bran .... 
Buckwheat Bran .... 

Rice Meal 

Linseed Cake 

Linseed Meal (extracted) . 

Palm Nut Cake 

Cotton Seed Cake .... 
'* " decorticated 

Flesh Meal 

Dried Blood 

Cow's Milk 

Skimmed Milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed Milk .... 

Whey 

Cream . 



70, 
86, 
70. 
71 
76, 
10, 
13, 
12, 
12, 
11, 
11, 
14 

9, 
12, 

9. 
10, 
V, 
11, 
11 
12, 
87, 
90, 
90, 

21. 
92.6 

62.0 



3. 

0. 
0. 
0. 

1. 

7. 
5. 
6. 
5. 
3. 
3. 
3. 
9J10. 



1 



6 

4 

4. 

17. 

14. 

15. 

14. 

13. 

10. 

17 

10 

29 

33 

16 

22. 

38. 

72. 

80. 

3. 

3. 

5j 3. 

510. 

7 1. 

6 2. 



8, 6. 

8 2, 

1 2, 

.41 3, 



7 
4 
9! 5.2 



614 

8, 
010, 
5 5, 
9 4, 
o 



18 
11 

18 
15 

11 

48 
55, 
52. 
58. 

.63. 

61. 

7 46. 



47. 

29. 

38. 

41 
130. 
219. 

2. 
5.' 
5 
5. 
52. 
5. 
2. 



0.2 
0.1 
1.5 

2.2 
l.lj 

2.1112. 
3.811. 

3.212. 
4.512. 
3.310. 



24.6| 
13.7 1 



3.8 
4.4 
9.9 
9.9 
7j 2.3 
010.0 
5 6.1 
513.7 
12.0 



18.1 
15.1 

10.8 
51.6 
44.4 

42.7 
46.2 
54.0 
56.6 
5;44.0, 
6;47.2; 
827.5 1 
833.9 
ll55.4 



24. 

27. 

16. 

17.5h4.9 

31. 

69. 



0.2:13 

0.117 

12| 4 

1.8 

0.8 

1.7 

3.0 

2.f 

3.6 

2.9 

'3.4 

3.9 

8.8 

8.9 

2 1 

9.5 

5.5 



2 
0.5 1 54.1 

2 
5 




3.6 

0.7 

1.0 

12.9 

1] 0.6 
9131.8 



3 

3 
3 

10.2 52.9 
1 
9, 



18.312.3 

... 11.2 
0.5 
3.6 
0.7 
1.0 
12.9 
0.6 
31 



5.0 
5.0 
5.4 



5.1 

9 Q 



.9,0.30 
.40.16 
.10.44 
3,0.37 
4 0.30 
7:1.09 



0. 

3. 
4. 

4.4| 1.04 
3.91.04 
4.51.10 
5.71.08 
8.2 0.99 
01.15 
1.16 
1.72 
1.61 
161 
1.14 
2.07 
3.54 
2.32 
4|0.34 
90.23 
6|0.22 
31.48 
6 0.11 
51.54 



96 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [230] 

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. 

The table herewith is taken, with some slight altera- 
tions, from a much larger one by Wolff, in the " German 
Farmers' Almanac." These figures,from European products 
mostly German, represent the average results of many hun- 
dreds of analyses, but they enable American farmers to 
estimate the probable composition of their own feeding 
stuffs. So far as analyses made up to the present time show,, 
the American and European products in general agree 
pretty closely. The most marked exceptions are in grasses 
and hays, ours averaging poorer than the European, proba- 
bly because of poor manuring and much poorer culture. 

Water. — The figures in the first column give the num- 
ber of pounds of water in 100 pounds. Thus 100 pounds 
of young grass contain from 75 to 80 pounds of water, 
while 100 pounds of dry hay contain only about 14j£ 
pounds. In 100 pounds of bran there are about 13 pounds 
of water, while 100 pounds of potatoes contain 75 pounds 
of water, and 100 pounds of turnips 92 pounds of water. 
The bran thus has (100-13) about 87 per cent, or J of dry 
substance ; the potatoes 25 per cent, or J; and the turnips 
only 8 per cent., or one-twelfth dry matter. 

Ash or Mineral Matters. — The mineral matters, potash, 
soda lime, phosphoric acid, etc., which remain as ashes 
when the material is burned, vary from f pound in 100 
pounds of milk, to from 5 to 8 pounds in 100 pounds of 
bran or linseed cake. These substances are necessary for 
supporting animal life, but there i"5 generally an abundance 
of them in all the foods used on the farm. 

Organic Substance, Total and Digestible. — Columns 2 6- 
give the Albuminoids, Carbo-hydrates and Fats, which to- 
gether make up the combustible or Organic Substance. 
Columns 7, 8 and 9 give the amounts of these that are di- 
gestible. The figures represent general averages, as* 



[231] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 97 

shown by the results of probably more than 1,200 actual 
feeding trials, with oxen, cows, horses, sheep and swine. 
The digestibility of the materials, as Hungarian grass, 
which have not been tested, is calculated from the known ; 
digestibility of similar foods. 

Nutritive Ratio. — The " nutritive ratio" expresses the 
ratio of digestible albuminoids to digestible carbo-hydrat 
and fats (each pound of fats being assumed equal to 2.5 of 
carbo-hydrates) ; that is to say it shows the number o£- 
pounds of digestible carbo-hydrates to one pound of diges- 
tible albuminoids. For instance, the " poor " hay contains 

1 pound of albuminoids to 10.6 pounds of digestible car- 
bo-hydrates. The nutritive ratio is 1:10,6. The "very 
good" hay has 1 of albuminoids to every 6.1 of carbo-hy 
drates. The ratio is 1 : 6. 1. Linseed cake and cotton seed cake 
are rich in digestible albuminoids, having 1 pound to every 

2 pounds of carbo-hydrates, while straw is very poor, the 
nutritive rate being 1 to 30 or even 1 to 45. The value 
of a food in practice depends mainly upon the amounts 
and proportions of digestible ingredients it contains, and 
the way it is fed. The " as 1 " at head of column, "Nu- 
tritive Ratio," means as one to — . 

The Money Value of the Foods in the table are calculated 
by assigning a certain price to each pound of digestible 
ingredients. The prices assumed by WolfT for the Ger- 
man market in 1880, are for digestible albuminoids and 
fats, each 4J cents per pound, and for carbo-hydrates nine- 
tenth cents per pound. They vary a little, but not widely, 
from the values in many of our American markets. Of- 
course these values are relative, and apply only when 
properly fed. Doubtless both the prices current in our 
markets, and the intrinsic facts of the case would require a , 
revision of these rates to make the valuations entirely cor- 
rect with us. Nor can such computations be absolutely 
accurate at best, but they do give a general idea of the 
7 



98 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [232] 

comparative values of the materials as food for stock 
when properly used. 

TABLE No. 2. 

ECONOMY IN CATTLE FEEDING, COMPOSITION OF FOODS, FEED- 
ING STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

Table No. 1 gave the average amounts of the food ingre- 
dients, albuminoids, carbo-hydrates and fats contained in 
different foods, and likewise the amounts of these that are 
from feeding trials, estimated to be actually digestible. It 
is the digestible parts of the food that supply the wants of 
the animal, that are made over into flesh and fat, skin and 
bone, milk and progeny, and are used to produce heat to 
keep the body warm, and muscular power for work. It is 
with these, therefore, that we have mainly to do in feeding. 

FEEDING STANDARDS. 

Having noted how much of the nutritive ingredients 
our feeding stuffs contain, the next step is to learn how 
much of each different animals need for maintenance and 
for production of meat, milk, work, etc. The German ex- 
perimenters have studied into this matter very carefully, 
in two ways : first, by experiments, feeding animals with 
different kinds and amounts of food, and noting the ef- 
fects; second, by observing the methods and results of 
feeding, as practiced by the most successful farmers. On 
the basis of these two kinds of observations feeding stan- 
dards have been calculated, as shown below. In brief, it 
has been found that full-grown oxen at rest in the stall, 
can be kept for long periods in fair condition with food of 
such sort as to supply them, per 1,000 lbs. live weight, 
with 0.6 lbs. albuminoids, and 7.0 lbs. carbo-hydrates, in 
forms to be digested and taken into the circulation. It 
has been found well to have this supplied by 14-15 lbs. dry 
substance in the food. With rations furnishing these 
amounts of digestible ingredients, there has sometimes 



[-233] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 99 

been observed a slight improvement, but perhaps oftener 
a small falling off in condition. It appears on the whole, 
better to increase the ration, so as to give 0.7 lbs. nitrogen, 
ous, and a little over 8 lbs. non-nitrogenous nutrients, with 
a nutritive ratio of 1:12. It seems to make little differ- 
ence in what forms these are given, whether in hay, straw, 
oat-meal or otherwise, provided the food be wholesome 
and palatable. These materials suffice to make up for the 
wastes of the animal's body, to keep it warm, and to pro- 
duce the small amount of muscular power needed when 
the animal is at rest. 

If, now, the ox is to be worked or fattened, food for 
production of meat or force is required. Or if, instead of 
an ox, we have a milch cow, she will need food for pro- 
duction of milk, in addition to what is necessary to main- 
tain her body in good condition. And this food for pro- 
duction must be not only larger in quantity, but different 
in quality ; it must have a larger proportion of albumi- 
noids, as the Germans say, the nutritive ratio must be 
narrower. Thus Wolff recommends for a daily ration for 
milch cows, per 1,000 lbs. live weight, 2.5 lbs. digestible 
albuminoids, 12.5 digestible carbo-hydrates, and 0.4 
lbs. digestible fats, with a nutritive ratio of i:'5-4. This 
is just about what would be contained in 30 lbs. of 
fine quality, young, cut hay, or 120 lbs. of young 
grass, either of which would make a very good daily 
ration for milch cow. The following table by Wolf, from 
the "Farmer's Almanac" referred to, gives feeding stan- 
dards for various domestic animals. The first column 
gives the total amount of organic substance — that is, the 
whole food, less water and ash, in the daily ration. The 
next three columns give the amounts of digestible albumi- 
noids, carbo-hydrates, and fats. The fifth column, "Total 
nutritive substance," is the sums of the digestible nutri- 
ments in the previous three columns. The last column 
gives the ratio of albuminoids to carbo-hydrates, or the 
nutritive ratio. 

ttofC. 



100 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 
Feeding Standards. 



[234] 







Nutritive (diges- 








0Q 

.2 8 

S| 


tible) substances. 


> 4> 

!'l 

!=S to 

5S 


6 


KIND OW ANIMAL, WEIoHT, AGE, ETC. 


1 00 

11 


>> on 
O s3 




+3 
g 

> 




O 


£% 




"o3 


O 






H 


< 


Q 


fr 


H 


« 


A— Per Day and per 1,000 pounds live 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs 


lbs. 


as 


WEIGHT. 












1: 


1. Oxen at rest in stall 


17.5 


0.7 


8.0 


0.15 


8.85 


12. 


2. Wool sheep, coarser breeds . . . 


20.0 


1.2 


10.3 


0.20 


11.70 


9. 


Finer breeds 


22.5 


1.5 


11.4 


0.25 


13.15 


8. 


3. Oxen, moderately worked .... 


24.0 


1.6 


11.3 


0.30 


13 20 


7.5 


Heavily worked 


26.0 


2.4 


13.2 


0.50 


16.10 


6. 


4. Horses, moderately worked . . 4 . 


22.5 


1.8 


11.2 


0.60 


13.60 


7. 


Heavily worked 


25 5 


2.8 


13.4 


0.80 


17 00 


5.5 


5. Milch cows : . . 


24.0 


2.5 


12.5 


0.40 


15.40 


5.4 


6. Fattening oxen, 1st period . . . 


27.0 


2.5 


15.0 


0.50 


18.00 


6.5 


2d period 


26.0 


30 


14.8 


0.70 


18 50 


5.5 


3d period 


25.0 


2.7 


14.8 


0.60 


18.10 


6.0 


7. Fattening sheep, 1st period .... 


26.0 


30 


15.2 


0.50 


18.70 


5.5 


2d period ......... 


25.0 


3.5 


14.4 0.50 


18.50 


4.5 


8. Fattening swine, 1st period .... 


36.0 


5.0 


27J5 


32.50 


5.5 


2d period 


31.0 


4.0 


20.0 


28.00 


6.0 


3d period 


23.5 


2.7 


17.5 


20.20 


6.5 


9. Growing cattle: 












Age, months. Average live weight per h'd 












2— 3 150 lbs . . 


22.0 


4.0 


13.8 


2.0 


19.8 


4.7 


3— 6 300 " . . . 


23.4 


3.2 


13.5 


1.0 


17.7 


5.0 


6—12 500 " . . 


24 


2.5 


13.5 


0.6 


16.6 


6.0 


12—18 700 " . . . 


24.0 


2.0 


13.0 


0.4 


15.4 


7.0 


18—24 850 " . . . 


24.0 


1.6 


12.0 


0.3 


13.9 


8.0 


18. Growing sheep : 














5—6 56 " . . . 


28.0 


3.2 


15.6 


0.8 


19.6 


5.5 


6—3 67 " . ..... . 


25.0 


2.7 


13.3 


0.6 


16.6 


5.5 


8—11 75 " . . . 


23.0 


2.1 


11.4 


0.5 


14.0 


6.0 


11—15 82 " . 


22.5 


1.7 


10.9 


0.4 


13.0 


7.0 


15—20 85 "... . 


22.0 


1.4 


10.4 


0.3 


12.1 


8.0 


Growing fat pigs: 






V y > 






2—3 50 lbs . . . 


42.0 


7.5 


30.0 


37.5 


4.0 


3— 5 100 " . . . 


34.0 


5.0 


25.0 


30.0 


5.0 


5— 6 125 " . . . 


31.5 


4.3 


23.9 


28 


5.5 


6— 8 170 " . . . 


27.0 


3.4 


20.4 


33.8 


6.0 


8—12 250 "... 


21.0 


2.5 


16.2 


18.7 


6.5 


B— Per Day and per head. 












Growing cattle: 












2— 3 150 lbs . . . 


2.3 


0.6 


2.1 


3.30 


3.00 / 


1.7 


3— 6 300 " . . . 


7.0 


1.0 


4.1 


).30 


5.40 


5.0 


6-12 500 " . . . 


12.0 


1.3 


6.8 


3.80 


8.40 


3.0 


12—18 700 "... 


16.8 


L.4 


9.1 


3.28 


10.78 ' 


7.0 


18-23 850 "... 


30.4 


L.4 


L0.3( 


3.26 


LI. 96 i 


10 



[235] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



101 



Feeding Standards. — Continued* 









Nutritive (digesti- 










.3© 


ble) substances. 


> B 


.2 






"S 3 








•c £ 


g 


KIND OF ANIMAL, 


WEIGHT, AGE, ETC. 




1 to 

"E£S 






+3 3 
PI 


> 






















o 




05 




O 








H 


< 


y 


^ 


H 


'A 


B.— Per day and 


PER HEAD. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


ibs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


as 


■Growing sheep : 














1: 


5— 6 


56 lbs . . . 


1.6 


18 


0.87 


0.045 


1.095 


.*>.-£> 


6- 8 


67 " . . . 


1.7 


0.17 


0.85 


0.040 


1.060 


5.5 


8-11 


75 " . . . 


1.7 


0.16 


0.85 


0.037 


1047 


6.0 


11—15 


-82 " . 


1.8 


0.14 


0.89 


0.032 


1.062 


7.0 


15-20 


85 " . . . 


1.9 


0.12 


0.88 


0.025 


1.047 


8.« 


Growing fat swine: 








v ¥ > 






2— 3 


50 lbs. . . . 


2.1 


0.38 


1.50 


1.88 


40 


3— 5 


100 "... 


3.4 


0.50 


2.50 


3.00 


5.0 


5— 6 


125 " , . . 


3 9 


0.54 


2.96 


3.50 


5.5 


6— 8 


170 "... 


46 


0.58 


3.47 


4.05 |6.0 


8—12 


250 "... 


5.i 


0.62 


4.05 


4.67 16.5 



PRACTICAL APPLICATION — CALCULATION OF DAILY 
RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

To use the feeding standards, let us take some of the 
feeding stuffs in table No. I, and leaving out of account 
the water, ash, and total amount of the ingredients, note 
the amounts of digestible ingredients as shown in the 
condensed table below: 

Digestible Ingredients of Fodder Stuffs. 



KIND OP FODDER. 



I.— Hay. 



Meadow Hay, poor . . 
" medium 
" " very good 

Eed Clover, poor . . , 
" " medium 
" " very good , , 



Digestible 


food 




ingredients . 


•S 




riS 




2 


£■1 


■si's 




'B 


< 


5^13 


£ 


fc 


per 


per 


pei 


as 


ct. 


ct. 


ct. 


1: 


3.4 


34.9 


0.5 


10.6 


5.4 


41.0 


1.0 


8.0 


7.4 


41.7 


1.3 


6.1 


5.7 


37.9 


1.0 


7.1 


70 


38.1 


1.2 


5.9 


8.5 


38.2 


1.7 


5.0 



102 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[236] 



Digestible Ingredients of Fodder Stuffs.- Continued. 



KIND OF FODDER. 



Dig p stibie food 
ingredients. 



& a 



II— Straw. 



Winter Wheat, 
Winter Rye, 
Oat, . . . 



per 

ct. 

08 
CfcS 
1.4 



III.— Roots and Tubers. 



Potatoes, Irish 
Sugar Beets, 
Turnips, . . 



per 
ct. 



35. 6 

^6 5 
40.1 



per 
ct. 

0-4 
4 
7 



IV.— Manufacturing and Waste Products, etc 



Sugar Beet Cake .... 

Malt Sprouts 

Wheat Bran, coarse . . . 

Rye Bran, 

Linseed Cake, 

Palm Nut Cake, ..... 
Cotton-seed Cake, ... 
Cotton seed Cake discorticated 
Flesh Meal 



1.1 
1.0 
1.1 



1.8 
12.- 
12.6 
12.2 
24.8 
16.1 
17 5 
31.0 



22 8 

16 7 

6.1 



24/- 
51.6 
42.7 
46.2 
27.5 
54.4 
14 9 
18.3 



as 
1: 

45.8 
46.9 
29.9 



2 21.6 



0.1 
0.1 



0.2 
1. 

2.6 
3.6 
8.9 
9.5 
5.5 
12.3 
11.2 



17.0 



13.9 
4.7 
3.9 
4.5 
2.0 
4.9 
1.7 
1.6 
0.4 



Suppose now that I wish to feed my oxen that are 
standing in the stable doing no work, on medium quality 
hay and oat straw, and add enough wheat bran to keep 
them in good store condition. By the above figures there 
will be contained in : 

Albuminoids. 

lbs. 

6 pounds medium hay ... 0.32 

12 pounds oat straw . . . .0.17 

2 pounds wheat bran ... 25 

Whole daily ration 0.74 

Standard ration 0.8 

That is, 6 pounds of medium hay, 12 pounds oat straw r 
and 2 pounds wheat bran, will furnish just about the 



Carbo-hybrates. 


Fats. 


Jotal 


lbs] 


lbs. 


lbs. 


2.5 


0.06 


2.88- 


4.8 


0.08s 


5.05< 


0.8 


0.05 


1.10 


. 








8.1 


0.19 


9.03 


8.0 


0.15 


8.85 



[237] A MANUAL ON CATTLE, 103 

quantities of digestible albuminoids, carbo-hydrates and 
fats, that the standard per day for 1,000 pounds, live 
weight, requires. 

My friend and former assistant, Prof. W. H. Jordan, of 
the Maine Agricultural College, has made use of the feed- 
ing standards above given in calculating the following 
rations for various farm animals. It is not meant that 
just these proportions must be used. There are wide 
variations in the composition, digestibility, and flavor of 
the same feeding stuffs. So likewise the individual pecu 
liarities of the animals, their size, condition, varying 
capacities for digesting, and more especially, for their 
food, differ greatly. Hence the rations need to be adapted 
to particular cases. The important thing is to mix the 
foods on hand, or to be bought, so as to secure the best 
results at the lowest cost. These are simply examples of 
mixtures that contain the nutrients in about the pro- 
portions believed to be best adapted to the purpose. I 
cannot give what seems to me the right view of this sys- 
tem of calculating food rations, better than in the words 
of a shrewd and intelligent German farmer, who has had 
considerable experience in their use : "As indications of 
what is best, they are invaluable ; to follow them blindly 
would be folly." 

DAILY RATIONS FOR 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 
(A) MAINTENANCE. FODDER FOE FULL GROWN, LABOR-FREE OXEN. 

lbs. No. 1. V&. No 2. 

6 Med'm meadow hay 5 Clover hay, best 

12 Oat straw 18| Wheat straw 

2 Wheat bran £ Linseed cake 

Vbs No. 3. lbs. No. 4. 

6 Poor timothy <15 Oat straw 

17 Cornstalks 20 Potatoes 

4 Corn meal 1 Cotton-seed meal 

lbs. No. 5. lbs. No. 6. 

10 Poor Timo'hy 6 Clover hay, best 

20 Sugar beets 15 Oat straw 

2 Corn meal 



104 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[238] 



(B) FODDER F >R OXEN AT MODERATE WORK. 


lbs. No. 7. 


lbs. No. 8. 


20 Good meadow hay 


20 Medium timothy 


6^ Corn meal 


2 Coarse bran 




4 Corn meal 


lbs. No. 9. 


lbs. No. 10. 


12 Good meadow hay 


12 Clover hay, best 


13 Oat straw 


10 Rye straw 


3 Linseed cake 


22 Potatoes 


lbs. No. 11. 


lbs. No. 12. 


12. Clover hay, good 


10 Clover hay, best 


10 Wheat straw 


14 Oat straw 


7 Wheat bran 


20 Mangolds 




1 Cotton-seed meal 


(C) FODDER FOR 


OXEN AT SEVERE WORK. 


lbs. No. 13. 


lbs. No. 14. 


20 Best meadow hay 


17 Clover, good 


10 Coro meal 


3 Wheat bran 




10. Corn meal 



lbs. 
25 



No. 15. 
Medium meadow 
Wbnat bran hay 
Linseed cake 



lbs. 



(D) WINTER FODDER 
No. 16. 



20 
5 
3 

lbs 
17 
16 
3 
2 



Best meadow hay 
Wheat bran 
Palm-nut meal 

No. 18. 

Best meadow hay 

Corn stalks 
Wheat bran 
Cotton seed meal 



lbs. No. 20. 

20 Hungarian hay 

20 Mangolds 
3 Wheat bran 
2 Linseed cake 

lbs. No. 22. 

10 Best meadow hay 

15 Wheat straw 
5 Wheat bran 
3 \ Cotton-seed meal 



FOR MILCH COWS. 

lbs. No. 17. 

20 Goud Clover 
20 Beet pulp 

2 Cotton seed meal 
lbs. No. 19. 

10 Clover hay, best 
15 Poor timothy 
20 Turnips 

3£ Linseed cake 
lbs. No. 21. 

20 Clover hay, best 
2£ Wheat bran 
50 Turnips 

lbs. No. 23. 

20 Clover hay, med'm. 
30 Mangolds. 
4 Malt sprouts 



[239] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



105 



lbs. No. 24. 

20 Clover hay, best 
30 Turnips 
6 Corn meal 



FODDER FOR GROWING CATTLE 


ONE TO TWO YEARS OLD 


lbs. No. 25. 


lbs. No. 26. 


15 Medinm meadow hay 


20 Oat straw 


18 Rye straw 


30 Turnips 


2 Cottoa-seed meal 


5 Wheat bran 




2 Cotton seed meal 


lbs. No. 27. 




15 Medium meadow hay 




20 Corn stalks 




If Meat scraps 




lbs. No. 28 


lbs. No. 29. 


10 Good clover 


20 Poor meadow hay 


10 Oat straw 


20 Potatoes 


8 Corn stalks 


1 J Dry ground fish 


2 Cot ton -seed meal 




lbs. No. 30. 





20 Good meadow hay 
20 Mangolds 
4 Coarse wheat bran 



(G) FODDER 
lbs. No. 31. 

22 Clover hay, best 
8 Corn meal 



lbs. No. 33. 

20 Good meadow hay 
100 Pumpkins 

3£ Cotton-seed meal 
lbs. No. 35. 

22 Best meadow hay 
50 Turnips 

5 Corn meal 



FOR FATTENING CATTLE. 

lbs. No. 32. 

20 Medium meadow hay 
10 Oat straw 
30 Mangolds 
3^ Cotton-seed meal 
lbs. No. 34. 

20 Best meadow hay 
30 Sugar-beet pulp 

2 Linseed cake 
lbs. No. 36. 
15 Clover hay, best 
10 Barley straw 

40 Mangolds 

3 Linseed cake 



FODDER FOR 

lbs. No. 37. 

15 Clover hay, good 
10 Poor hay 
3 Oats 



PRODUCING WOOL. 

lbs. No. i 

10 Medium hay 
15 Bean straw 
4 Corn 



106 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[240] 



lbs. M. 39. lbs. No . 40. 

20 Pea straw 20 Oat straw 

20 Potatoes 30 Mangolds 
2 Oottoa-esil mea 11 Dried flesh 

™'u > , iVo - 41 - ^- ^.42. 

10 Best clover 2 Poor meadow hay 
10 Barley straw Clover ha^v, best 

li Fish scrap 4 corn 

MOEE ABOUT FEEDING STUFFS AND FODDER RA- 
TIONS. 

(By Prof. W. O. Atwater, of Wesleyan University, Middleton, Conn.) 

There are too very important matters connected with 
the economical feeding of stock which the teachings of 
modern science explain, but which too few farmers under- 
stand, how to adapt the food most economically to the 
wants of the animal and the purpose for which it is fed, 
and how to feed so as to make the richest and best ma- 
nure. 

Either the concurrent testimony of the most advanced 
science and the most profitable practice is false, or the 
farmers, of our older States especially, must improve their 
methods of feeding to farm most successfully. For this 
they need especially to— 1st: Produce better foods by 
better manuring and culture, and by more careful gather- 
ing and housing. 2d. Carefully save the poorer food and 
waste products, and feed them so as to utilize the large 
amount of nutriment they contain. 3d. Use a greater va- 
riety of feeding stuffs, and in proper mixtures. 4th. Use 
more nitrogenous foods— i. e., (a) Raise more clover, and, 
where circumstances will allow, beans, peas, lucern, and 
leguminous plants, (b) Buy cotton-seed meal, linseed 
meal, palm-nut meal, bran, and other nitrogenous foods. 
(c) mix these rich materials with poor hay, straw, corn- 
stalks, and the like, in such proportions as are fitted to the 
wants of the animals and the purposes for which they are 
fed. This will bring excellent fodder and rich manure at 
at very low cost. To see why these facts are so, note the 
table on next page. 



F241] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 1^7 

Nutritive Ingredients of Foods and Feeding Standards. 



Digestive Food Ingre- 
dients. 



FOODS AND FEEDIN© STANDARDS. 



Feeding Stuffs. 
I.— Hay. 

Meadow Hay, poor 

" " medium 

" " very good 

Bed Clover, poor 

" » medium 

" " very good ...... 

II.— Straw. 

Winter Wbeat 

Winter Rye 

Oat 

Corn Stalks • • • ■ • • 

HI.— Roots and Tubers. 

Potatoes (Irish) 

Sugar Beets 

Turnips • • • • • * 

Xy — Manufacturing and Waste Products, 
etc. 

Sugar Beet Cake 

Malt Sprouts 

Wheat Bran, coarse 

Rye Bran 

Linseed Cake 

Palm-Nut Meal 

Cotton-seed Cake 

Cotton-seed Meal, decorticated 

Flesh Meal 

Dry Ground Fish 

Feeding Standard. 
Per Day and per 1,000 Lbs. Live Weight. 

1. Oxen at rest in stall 

2. Wool Sheep, coarser breeds 

« " finer breeds 

3. Oxen, moderately worked 

u heavily worked 

4. Horses, moderately worked 

" heavily worked ...... 

5. Milch Cows 

6. Fattening Oxen, first period *■'.■•.-'■. 

" " second period . . . 

" " third period .... 






p.e. \>.o. 
3.4 34.9 
5.4 41.0 
7.441.7 
5.7,37.9 
7 38.1 
8.5,38.2 

0.8,35.6 
0.8,36.5 
1.4 40.1 
1.137.0 



p.c 
0.5 
1.0 
1.3 
1.0 
1.2 
1.7 

0.4 
0.4 

0.7 
0.3 



p.e. to 

38.8110.6 



1.1 22.8 
1.016.7 
1.1 6.1 



0.2 
0.1 
0.1 



1.8 24.6 
12.8 51.6) 
12.6 42.7, 

22.246.2i 
24.8 27.5 
16.1 55.4 
17.514.9, 
131.018.3 

2 
44.6 



47.4 
50.4 
44.6 
46.3 

48.4 

36.8 
37.7 
42.2 
38 4 



8.0 
6.1 
7.1 
5.9 
5.0 

45.8 
46.9 
29.9 
34.4 



24.1 21.6 

17 817.0 

7.3 5.8 



l^s 
0.7 



lbs. 
8.0 



1.210.3 
1.511.4 
1.611.3 
2.413.2 



1.8 
2.8 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 



0.2 
1.7 
2.6 
3.6 
8.9 
9.5 
5.5 
12.3 
11.2 
8.6 

lbs 
,0.15 

0.20 

0.25 



0.50 

0.60 



26 6,13.9 

66.1 4.7 
57.9 3.9 
62.0 4.5 

61.2 2.0 
81.0) 4.9 
37.91 1.7 
61.6 1.6 
80.4 0.4 
53.2 0.5 



11.2 

13.4 

12.5 

15.0 0.5018.00 

14.8 

14.8 



0.80,17.00 
0.4015.40 



0.70,1^.50 
0.6018.10' 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [242] 

RICH VS. POOR FOODS-PROPORTIONS OF DIGESTIBLE AT 
BUMINOIDS, CARBO-HYDRATES, AND fIts 
Now kt take a poQr food> ^ Qatst 

•tw,th good hay. One hundred pounds of 'Very gTd" 
hay contamsabout 5 olb, of digestible material, whife the 

"r °/ °f - straw furnishes some ^ lbs - At tS 

mater aUs,™ T^I ""^ SUPP ' y 3S much nut ^e 
1, M !k !' ° f firSt qUality "P Iand ha 7- But it 

would not be worth as much for fodder. Why the straw 
■s worth less appears when we compare the amounts of hi 
d fferen mgred.ents. The 100 lbs. of hay, with its 5 o lbs of 
d.gest lb le matter, furnishes 7.4 lb, of albuminoid aganst 
only L 4 lbs ln the straw. So likewise the hay coSin 

to'tne 3 ' U I*'?' ^^ ° nly °- 7 lbs ' But - hen - come 

n ot h The 7 f at 1 W t *£ JUSt ab ° Ut thC Same «">•» J 
■n both. The straw lacks albuminoids and fats, and these 

are the most valuable ingredients of the food The al 

bum In o,ds make all the nitrogenous tissues of the body 

the lean meat (muscle), the gristle, skin, etc., all the a^ 

bumen and caseine of the milk, and part of the fat of the 

body and of the milk (butter), besides sharing in the pro! 

ducho n of animal heat and muscular force, ^he fat S P of 

the food are transformed into fats in the body, and share 

m the product^ of heat and force. They can not be 

zt" : r us h e or other nitrogen ° us tissue > h — , 

because they have no nitrogen. At least, the present 
evidence „ entirely in this direction. The carbo-hydrates 
do not make nitrogenous tissue in the body. They are 
probably transformed into fats, but only to slight extent 
They serve for fuel, and seem to aid in producing muscu-' 
lar force. They thus do a work of their own. which if it 
were not for them, would be left for the costlier a Ibumi- 
noids and fats. So even if the carbo-hydrates are not 
made mto flesh, fat, butter and caseine themselves, they 
doubtless do what amounts in practice to the same thing 
by saving the other ingredients to be used for these pur 



[243] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 109 

poses. Starch and sugar are carbo-hydrates, but they are 
at the same time valuable foods. 

The reason for the inferior worth of the straw may be 
seen from another standpoint in the last column of the table : 
"Nutritive Ratio." The "very good" hay has I lb. albu- 
minoids for every 6 lbs. carbo-hydrates (i lb, fat being 
reckoned equal to 2 1-2 lbs. carbo-hydrates), while the straw 
has one pound of albuminoids to o lbs. of carbo-hydrates. 
According to the feeding standards, for a milch cow a 
ration with I lb. albuminoids to 5.4 carbo-hydrates will be 
appropriate, while an ox at rest in the stall will do well 
with only 1 lb. albuminoids to 12 lbs. carbo-hydrates. 
The best hay will serve well for making milk, while the 
straw has not enough of the albuminoids and fats to make 
it a proper food for even store cattle. There is a great 
difference between 

GOOD AND POOR HAY. 

Upland hay cut during the period from early blossom to 
full blossom is easily digestible, and has a good per centage 
of albuminoids. But as it grows older the proportion of 
nitrogen decreases, and that of woody fibre grows larger^ 
the hay becomes less digestible, the digested mated is 
poorer because it lacks albuminoids, and finally the old 
hay is not so palatable. For all these reasons the late cut 
hay is worth far less for feeding. Grass grown on rich soil 
is richer in albuminoids than on poor soil. Marsh and bog 
hays lack albuminoids and fats. Clover, timothy, red-top, 
blue-grass, and the like, grown on good soil, cut early and 
well cured and housed, make excellent fodder. Poorly 
mariured, cut late, and badly cured, they are very poor 
stuff. Much of the hay that lies in the barns all through 
the country is very little better than straw. 

THE WAY TO USE THESE POOR FOODS 

economically then must be to supply what they lack. To 
make boots of neck or split leather, or to throw the poor 



110 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [244] 

leather away, would be bad economy. With good leather 
for the parts where the wear comes, the poor leather may 
be used for backs and linings, and thus be made valuable. 
So we may feed straw, corn-stalks, and over-ripe or marsh 
hay to advantage, provided we put other foods with them 
to supply the albuminoids and fats. Now note in the 
table the figures for clover, bran, beans, peas, oil-cake, 
meat scraps and dry ground fish. They have very little 
carbo-hydrates, but are rich in albuminoids and fats. 

COTTON-SEED MEAL, LINSEED MEAL, PALM-NUT MEAL, AND 

BRAN 

are foods whose value farmers in this country are just be- 
ginning to appreciate. European farmers long since found 
out how much they are worth, and thousands of tons of 
American oil-cake and meal have been carried across the 
Atlantic to enrich English, French and German foods and 
soils. The time has come when we must keep them at 
home if we are going to redeem our farming. The great 
value of these foods is due to two facts: 1. They supply 
the albuminoids and fats in which poor hay, straw and the 
like are lacking. 2. They make rich manure. How they 
may be used with poor foods to make good rations at 
small cost, is illustrated in fodder rations. Chemistry indi- 
cates, experiments prove, and experience corroborates that 
foods, as late cut hay, marsh hay, straw, corn-stalks, etc., 
can be utilized and made very valuable by feeding with 
them nitrogenous foods such as oil-meal, bran, and clover- 
hay, to supply what they lack. It is proved that such mix- 
tures make the very best rations, and still urther that 
this is one of the cheapest ways to get good manure. 

DRIED BLOOD, MEAT SCRAP AND FISH AS FOD FOR STOOCK* 

Years ago, oil-cake used to be employed as a fertilizer. 
Chemistry said it ought to be first fed to stock, that it has 
a high nutritive value, that in going through the animal 
machine but little of ths valuable material is consumed, 



[245] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 

and that the residue is worth more for manure than be- 
fore. Experience proved that all this is true, and now 
nobody would think of using linseed cake or cotton-seed 
meal for manure. Of late, immense quantities of slaught- 
er-house refuse, dried blood, dried intestines, and the like, 
and still larger quantities of the refuse left after the ex- 
traction of oil from fish, are being prepared and used as 
iertilizers. These ought, like the oil-cake, to be first util- 
ized for food. The idea, though novel to most farmers, is 
an old one, and has been put into successful practice in 
many places. In its favor is the unanimous testimony of 
chemical composition, careful experiments, and the expe- 
rience of farmers who have used the materials with suc- 
cess. Against it are, the difficulty of preparing whole- 
some materials, which can be overcome, and the prejudice 
that only time and trial are needed to dispel. 

THE MANURIAL VALUES OF NtTROGENOUS FOODS 

is a matter worthy the thoughtful consideration of farmers. 
Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash are the most valu- 
able ingredients of manure. Farmers buy them in the 
better kinds of commercial fertilizers at the rate of from 
fifteen to thirty cents per pound for nitrogen, six to 
eighteen cents per pound for phosphoric acid, and 
three and a half to nine cents per pound for potash. 
Cotton-seed, linseed, and palm-nut meals, bran, dried 
blood, meat-scrap, and fish, are rich in these ingredients. 
Mr. Lawes has made some calculations of the money val- 
ues of the manures produced from different foods. This 
he does by assuming that certain percentages of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash are consumed and lost, that 
the rest go into the manure, and that they have there 
about the same value, pound for pound, as similar ones in 
commercial fertilizers in which their value is pretty well 
settled. I give Mr. Lawes' estimates of the value of ma- 
nure from a number of foods, and with them the feeding 
values, as estimated by Wolff, per table I ; 



112 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [246] 

FEEDING VALUE. MANURIAL VALUE. 

Wolff Lawes. 

Cotton-seed Cake $41 40 per ton $27 86 per ton 

Linseed Cake 34 40 per ton 19 72 per ton 

Beans . 15 20 per ton 15 73 per ton 

Wheat Bran 20 80 per ton 24 59 per ton 

Clover Hay . .... 14 00 per ton 9 64 per ton 

Indian Meal 22 20 per ton 6 64 per ton 

Meadow Hay . ... . 12 80 per ton 6 43 per ton 

Oat Straw 9 00 per ton 2 90 per ton 

Potatoes 5 80 per ton 1 50 per ton 

Turnips 2 20 per ton 86 per ton 

Meat Scrap 55 60 per ton 

Dry Ground Fish 46 00 per ton 

Mr. Lawes rates the ingredients pretty high, and prob- 
ably allows too little for loss in passing through the animal 
'and in the keeping and handling of the manure. Wolff's 
rates doubtless require modification for our markets, and 
the actual worth of the nitrogenous food stuffs would come 
up to the valuations only where they are properly used 
with other foods. 

In addition to the necessity for an abundance of whole- 
some food having in proper ratio the albuminoids and car- 
bo-hydrates milch cows should have free access to 

AN ABUNDANT SUPPLY OF PURE WATER. 
Analyses of milk of cows show that it contains, on an 
average, 86 per cent, of water. This being true an abun- 
dant supply of water is necessary to a liberal yield of milk, 
and pure water is essential to the production of good milk, 
It has been found, however, that food containing an excess 
of water, or inducing the consumption of large quantities 
of water by cows, will cause the secretion of milk to be 
poor in quality. Cows should not be compelled to walk a 
long distance for their supply of water, nor should they 
be required to labor over a large area to fill themselves 
with grass. Moderate exercise is no doubt beneficial, but 
when excessive, it is at the expense of production of milk 
or beef. The pasturage should be such that they can fill 



[247] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 113 

themselves in a few hours and then lie quietly in the shade 
and ruminate. Some object to 

SHADE IN PASTURES 
on the ground that it offers an inducement to the cattle to 
idle when they would otherwise be feeding, but no expe- 
rienced stock-breeder or dairyman would, from any such 
contracted view, deprive his stock of the comfort and 
protection of shade during our long summer days. So far 
from removing the shade from pastures, clumps of trees 
should be left in pastures, not only for the comfort of the 
stock but for the pleasing effect upon the landscape. 

A cow subjected to pain, worry or discomfort of any 
kind, cannot yield a full supply of milk of good quality. 
DRYING OFF BEFORE CALVING. 

Cows should be dried off a month before bringing an- 
other calf, since yielding milk and sustaining a large foetus, 
at the same time severely taxes their vital powers. A 
month should be given in which to recuperate from the 
tax of milk production, and in which to accumulate flesh 
and strength preparatory to a new period of usefulness. 

Care should be taken in drying off to draw all of the 
milk from the udder at intervals, commencing with once 
in twenty-four hours and increasing the intervals until 
secretion of milk ceases. If a portion of the milk is left 
in the udder, it becomes a source of irritation and often 
results in the loss of a portion of the bag. 
FEEDING WHILE DRY. 

Many farmers make the mistake of neglecting their cows 
while dry, allowing them to grow poor before coming in, 
and depending upon feeding up after calving. This is 
mistaken policy which results in loss to the owner of the 
cows. It should be remembered that there is a severe 
draught upon the system to sustain the growing foetus, and 
while under good treatment, all animals have a tendency 
to fatten during pregnancy, this tendency needs to be 
encouraged by liberal feeding or abundant pasturage. 
8 



114 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [248] 

Good feeding before coming in so that the cows come 
to the pail in good condition, not only insures a good flow 
of milk as soon as the calf is dropped, but actually saves 
food in the end. Cows should be well fed while dry, and 
kept in good, thriving condition, but not made fat. 

They cannot be expected to yield a full flow of milk 
and lay on fat at the same time. If in good condition 
when they come in, all the food given afterwards, except 
that required to maintain the thrifty condition already ac- 
quired, will be devoted to milk production. 

Salt should at all times be accessible to cattle so that 
they may satisfy their cravings for it at pleasure. A block 
of rock salt should be placed in a box in each stall, or at 
some convenient point in the pasture, where they may go 
and satisfy their appetites at will. This is better than giv- 
ing it at stated periods, or mixing it with their food. If 
given at stated periods, they are apt to take too much 
at one time; or, in their greed after it, to fight and injure 
each other. If given in the food there is not only risk of 
their getting too much and injuring themselves by drinking 
too much water, or of rejecting their food on account of the 
salt. 

If too much salt is taken by cows giving milk, it will 
either result in their taking too much water and thereby 
injuring their health and impoverishing their milk ; or, if 
relief is not found by access to water, in are duction of the 
flow of milk. 

SOILING 

Or cutting food and feeding cattle in inclosed lots 
or in stalls, may be profitably resorted to where a large 
number of cattle must be kept on a small area. 

The advantages of soiling over grazing are : 

1. Economy of land. A given area will support more 
cattle if sown or planted in a succession of forage crops 
which are cut and fed to cattle either in their stalls or in 
inclosed lots. 



[249] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 115 

2. A larger amount of manure of better quality is saved, 
and if proper arrangements are made, the liquid manure, 
the most valuable part, may be saved, and thus the fertil- 
ity of the farm increased. 

3. Having a uniform supply of good, succulent food, 
given at regular intervals, without waste of vital force by 
unnecessary exercise, cattle keep in better condition when 
soil-fed than when allowed to run at pasture. 

4. They acquire habits of quietude, receive good and 
regular attention, and choice and abundant food, and 
hence yield a greater flow of milk, untainted by noxious 
weeds and uncontaminated by stagnant, impure water. 

5. If abundant provision is made for a full succession of 
soiling crops, the cows receive a uniform supply of food, 
regardless of the weather, and do not fall off in their milk 
as when pastures fail; 

6. The owner has absolute control over his herd and 
may by proper selection and judicious mating improve his 
stock. 

7. The animals are less exposed to the influence of sud- 
den changes of temperature and hence less liable to be- 
come diseased. 

A SUMMARY. 

The main points of importance in the management of 
milch cows may then be summarized as follows: 

1. Select good cows as the first requisite for success. 

2. Bestow upon them and their offspring kind and gen- 
tle treatment. 

3. Feed liberally and regularly, or supply them with 
good pastures. 

4. Provide sufficient shelters to protect them from in- 
clement weather. 

5. Provide an abundant supply of pure water. 

6. Feed and milk regularly and punctually at the same 
hours daily. 



116 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [250] 

7. Keep their stalls or milking pens scrupulously clean 
and free from all offensive odors. 

8. Milk quietly, rapidly and gently and draw the strip- 
pings thoroughly, as they are from five to fifteen times as 
rich as the first milk drawn. 

9. If the calf is nursed by the cow, allow it to draw 
the first milk from each teat and not all from any. 

10. If keeping a regular dairy, wean the calves when not 
more than three days old. 

11. Keep no more cattle than can be well fed and cared 
for, and let these be of good quality. 

12. Grade up common cattle by the use of thorough- 
bred bulls of the kind best suited to the purposes for 
which the cows are kept. If for butter, the Jerseys ; if 
for milk, one of the deep-milking breeds ; if for combina- 
tion of butter, milk and beef, the Devons. 

13. Give personal supervision to feeding and milking as 
far as practicable. 

Of course much of the above is not applicable in those 
sections of the State in which cattle roam ad libitum in 
the pine forests or over the mountains* and receive little 
more attention than to collect them once a year for the 
purpose of marking the calves. 



[251] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 117 



CHAPTER XL 

SELECTION OF MILCH COWS-THE GUENON SYSTEM 
ILLUSTBATED. 

The foundation of success in dairying is involved in the 
judicious selection of the cows. The dairyman who is a 
skillful judge of cows in reference to their milk-producing 
capacity will have such an advantage over the unskilful 
as almost to preclude the idea of competition. 

The importance, therefore, of conveying clear and accu- 
rate information on this subject will be appreciated by the 
reader, and an effort will be made in this chapter to 
enumerate, as concisely as possible, the principal points 
indicative of dairy qualities in cows. 

In the space allotted to a treatise of this character, it 
will be impracticable to enter into minute details involving 
the distinctive peculiarities of the different breeds. The 
reader, however* may make the necessary allowance for 
variations arising from the characteristics of different 
breeds by reference to the chapter in which the different 
breeds and their characteristics are described. 

The remarks in this chapter will be based upon the pre- 
sumption that the dairy stock are supplied with abundant 
nutritious food and receive proper attention as to shelter, 
milking and gentleness of handling. 

The results which might reasonably be expected from 
the character marks of animals will of course be modified 
by neglect in any of these important particulars. 

As a rule, cows, to give promise of profitable yield at the 
pail, must have a general feminine appearance as regards 
form compared with the masculine appearance of the 
other sex. 



118 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [252] 

The dairy cow should have a small head, well set upon 
a tapering neck. With the exception of the Devons, the 
horns should be small, with rather a drooping tendency. 
Viewed in front, there should be a gradual taper from 
shoulders to hips — ribs well arched, giving full play for 
vigorous vital organs. 

A side view should present the same wedge-shape, rising 
from the neck to the rump, and descending from the 
brisket to the udder, with ample stomach and liberal 
capacity for the consumption of food. The udder should 
be large and attached well forward under the belly. The 
milk veins should be large, irregular in shape and knotty, 
entering the body though large holes. All the better if 
these veins ramify over the rear of the udder and percep- 
tably over the perineum. The skin should be loose and 
pliant, and covered with soft, fine hair. These points are 
taken in by the practiced eye at a glance, and suggest 
good milking properties. If added to these, we find a 
capacious escutcheon of upward growing hair extending 
well up the perineum to the vulva, and out on the lower 
part of the thighs, the other marks are well sustained. If 
on closer examination the upward growing hair, which 
marks the extent of the escutcheon, is found to be short 
and soft, and if on passing the finger nails downward over 
it a yellow, oily dandruff is discovered, and if the area of 
the escutcheon is uninterrupted, except by two bunches 
of downward growing, silky hair on the rear of the udder, 
the cow may be entered as first-class, so far as quantity of 
milk and continuance at the pail are concerned. If, in ad_ 
dition to these points, she shows a rich, yellow skin, with 
the oily dandruff on the escutcheon, milk rich in butter 
may be expected. 

THE ESCUTCHEON— WHAT IS IT? 

The escutcheon on cattle is that portion of the twist or 
space between the thighs which is covered with upward 
growing hair, which is usually darker and softer than that 



'£253] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 119 

adjacent on the thighs, which grows downward. This, in 
cows, commences on the front or lower part of the udder, 
and extends more or less out upon the thighs above the 
hock, and up over the perineum or space between the 
upper part of the thighs, varying in form and extent on 
different individuals. 

Mr. Willis P. Hazard, the Secretary of the Pennsyl- 
vania Guenon Commission, in his book entitled " How to 
Select Cows, or the Guenon System Simplified, Explained 
and Practically Applied," says : " The hair of the 
escutcheon should be short, soft and fine, and the skin 
very soft, like a kid-glove, thin and oleaginous ; and if the 
cow gives good, rich milk, this skin will be of a rich, golden 
or nankeen hue. Often, when you handle a skin of this 
character, the hand will feel oily, and soikd with dan- 
druff." 

THE SHAPE OF THE ESCUTCHEON. 

"The escutcheon varies in shape, and Guenon named 
his ten classes from their shapes. 

" The first class he called Flandrine, or Flanders, because 
it is the best, and he named it from the best cows he 
knew, those from Flanders or the Flemish breed, and they 
had more of this shaped escutcheon than any other breed ; 
a quiet but sure proof of the truth of his system. 

" The second class he called Flandrine a gauche, because 
although it had the Flanders shape, it was on the left 
flank ; he called it, therefore, the Left Flanders. 

" The third class are the Lisiere, or the Selvage, from 
its resembling in appearance a selvage, or binding of a 
piece of cloth. 

" The fourth class are the Courbe-Ligne, or the Curve- 
line, because their escutcheon is lozenge-shaped, formed 
by a curved line which sides to the right and left, and 
rises to about five or six centimeters (two and a half or 
three inches) from the vulva. 



120 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [254] 

"The fifth class he denominated Bicorne, or the Bicorn 
cow, because the upper part of the escutcheon forks in 
two horns. 

"The sixth class, Double-Lisiere, or Double-Selvage, 
has an entirely arbitrary name, and it is an odd freak of 
nature. 

" The seventh class he called the Poitevine, or Demijohn, 
from a fancied resemblance to some kinds of demijohns. 

" The eighth class is Equerrine, or Square escutcheon, 
as it is square at the upward part. 

" The ninth class is the Limousine, as it was on a cow 
from that Province that Guenon first saw this shaped 
escutcheon. 

" The tenth class is called Carresine, or Horizontal, be- 
cause the upward part of the escutcheon is cut off squarely 
by a horizontal line." 

In each class Guenon grades the escutcheons down 
from the best to very inferior. These he calls orders. 
For practical purposes, it is not necessary to follow him 
in his six orders, as cows with escutcheons ranking below 
the fourth order are rarely worthy of consideration. 
There are, however, escutcheons well worthy the careful 
consideration of both breeders and purchasers of cows, 
since they are apt to mislead the casual observer. These 
are what Guenon calls Batard, which has been rendered 
into English by his translators "Bastards," though the word 
does not clearly convey the idea intended to be repre- 
sented. 

The Bastards in each class have finely developed 
escutcheons, and soon after calving give a good flow of 
milk, but rapidly decline in yield when impregnated. 

An illustration of the escutcheon of the first order in 
each class is given as a guide to those who desire to study 
the system, the cuts having been copied from Mr. Willis 
P. Hazarcj's book entitled " How to Select Cows." For 
the protection of those who wish to purchase cows or 



[255] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 121 

select heifers for dairy purposes, the Bastard of the first 
class is illustrated and the others described. 

Those who wish to study the system more in detail are 
advised to purchase "A Treatise on Milch Cows," by M. 
Francis Guenon, or " How to Select Cows, or the Guenon 
System Simplified," etc., by Willis P. Hazard, Westches- 
ter, Pennsylvania. 

HOW TO STUDY THE SYSTEM. 

The first thing to be done is to fix the form of the 
different classes of escutcheon well in the mind, associat- 
ing with it the number of gallons of milk a cow of each 
class, of good size, well-fed and cared for should give, 
remembering that a large animal, other things being equal, 
will generally yield more milk than a small one, and keep- 
ing in view also the variations due to different breeds. 

Then, the distinguishing marks of the bastard cows 
of the various classes must be studied. These will be ex- 
plained in connection with the illustrations. 

" This," says Hazzard, " must be supplemented by the 
careful examination of the hair and the skin of the es- 
cutcheon and the udder; of the hair, whether it is short, 
fine, soft and furry ; of the skin, whether it is soft and 
close-grained, like a kid glove, thin, oleaginous and yellow 
or golden. For, if the hair is harsh and long, particularly 
on the back part of the udder, it will shorten the time of 
giving milk and indicates a poorer quality. The more 
oily or greasy the feeling of the skin of the udder and 
perineum is, the more it indicates good quality and richness 
of milk, for the oil or fat is there, showing it is the nature 
of that animal to give butyraceous milk. So, for the 
color of the skin, if it is golden it is indicative of rich 
milk, and the majority think it will make a finer-colored 
butter. There is one point more in judging by the es- 
cutcheon, and that is its size and position, and the general 
rule is, the higher up it is on the thighs and the broader 



122 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [256] 

it is on the thighs, together with the higher and broader 
it is on the perineum, even up to the vulva, then the better 
it is. Then, remember the escutcheon has two principal 
parts, called the thigh escutcheon and the vertical es- 
cutcheon ; the thigh escutcheon extends over the udder 
and the thighs, and the vertical is over the perineum or 
that part of the posterior which extends from the udder 
up toward the tail, under and often around the vulva. 

" If the thigh escutcheon is high and broad, therefore 
very large, and extends far outward on-to the thighs, it in- 
dicates a large flow of milk. If the vertical or upper part 
is broad and smooth, it indicates a prolonged flow of milk. 

" If the thigh or lower portion of the escutcheon is 
narrow, the flow will be proportionately small. If the 
vertical or upper part is narrow and irregular, it is un- 
favorable to a prolonged flow." 

It should be remembered that the size and form of the 
escutcheon indicate the quantity of milk a cow will give ; 
the color, oiliness and softness of the skin and the soft- 
ness and furry nature of the hair, with the presence of 
oily dandruff on the escutcheon, are evidences of good 
quality. A white, dry, harsh skin, with long, coarse ? 
bristly hair, indicate poor quality of milk. 

Bulls show the escutcheon in all its forms, and, though 
smaller in extent, should be considered in the selection of 
an animal intended for the sire of dairy stock. 

The outline of the escutcheon may be seen on calves 
only a few weeks old, and has long been used by breeders 
of dairy stock as a guide in selecting heifers to be reserved 
for dairy purposes. This is one of the most important 
applications made of the Guenon system, since it relieves 
the breeder of much expense and disappointment by ob- 
viating the necessity of waiting till the heifers drop their 
calves to decide which will prove profitable for the dairy. 
Besides, a heifer is more valuable for beef before having 
the first calf than she ever is afterward. 



[257] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



123 



A gentleman in Virginia, who has selected his heifers 
for breeding purposes with reference mainly to the indi- 
cations of the escutcheon, has never, in twenty-five years, 
had to discard one so selected after a practical test at the 
pail. 

Cows with this escutcheon are 
very rare. The first order of this 
class, if of good size, give twenty 
quarts when in full milk. The en- 
graving needs little explanation. 
The white spots on the udder rep- 
resent what are called ovals. They 
are small hunches of silky down- 
ward-growing hair in the midst of 
the escutcheon. 

These cows never go dry. 
The second order has a smaller 
escutcheon than the first, with on- 
ly one oval,and has a tuft of down- 
ward-growing hair on the right 
side of the vulva from two to three inches long and from 
one to two inches broad. 

They yield eighteen quarts of milk for eight months. 
The third order has a still smaller escutcheon. They 
have a tuft of downward-growing hair extending around 
and below the vulva. They are generally without the 
oval. They yield sixteen quarts of milk, and continue at 
the pail six months. 

In the fourth order the escutcheon is still smaller and 
less regular in shape, and has a strip of downward-growing 
hair below the vulva, extending down five or six inches. 
Another peculiarity of this order is a half oval on the 
right thigh, extending into and interrupting the thigh es- 
cutcheon, which is lower down and much smaller than the 
other orders. 




First-class— Flanders Cow. 
First Order. 



124 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[258] 




There are two bastard 
marks of the Flanders cow : 

1. A tuft of descending 
hair in the middle of the 
perineum, varying in size, 
usually about two inches 
wide and three long. The 
larger this tuft the sooner the 
cow will fail in her milk. All 
do no have it. 

2. The interference of the 
bastard flandeks. ascending and descending 

hair on the edge of the escutcheon, giving it a bristling, 
bearded appearance, is another indication of bastardy. In 
every other respect the escutcheons of bastards of the 
Flanders cows are like those of the first order. They 
even have the ovals well developed. 

The escutcheon of cows of 
this class is similar to that of the 
first, except that the vertical 
escutcheon is entirely on the 
left of the vulva, and conse- 
quently the right thigh es- 
cutcheon larger than the left. 
They yield eighteen quarts and 
milk eight months. 

The second order has a smaller 
escutcheon, with only one oval, 
and a small tuft of downward 
growing hair on the left of the 
vulva. They yield sixteen quarts 
and milk seven months, 
still smaller escutcheon, with a 
larger tuft on the left of the vulva. They yield fourteen 
quarts and milk six months. 




Second-class— Left Flanders. 
First Order. 

The third order has a 



[259] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



125 



Those of the fourth order have still smaller and more 
irregular escutcheons, the tuft of downward growing hair 
being longer. There are also two invasions of the thigh 
escutcheon — one on each side — a curved invasion on the 
right and an angular one on the left. They give ten 
quarts and continue at the pail five months. 

The bastard of this class has the full escutcheon of the 
first order, as seen in the engraving, but have a large tuft 
(usually of coarse hair) on the right of the vulva. 

This escutcheon extends well 
out on the thighs, terminating 
in an acute angle, thence de- 
scending to the vertical es- 
cutcheon, which is narrow and 
extends to the vulva. The en- 
graving represents the first or- 
der. The cows of this order 
have yellow skins and soft and 
oily escutcheons. They give in 
full milk nineteen quarts and 
milk from eight to nine months. 
" The second order is similar 
to the first, only of reduced 
size. It has a tuft to the left of 
the vulva, and only one oval on 
the udder on the left side. The hair of the escutcheon is 
generally more glossy than that around it. Cows of the 
second order give seventeen quarts and milk seven months. 
" The third order escutcheon curves downward on each 
side of the vertical mirror, which rises narrowing to a point 
at the vulva. To the right and left of the vulva are tufts, 
the one on the left being the longest. On the left of the 
udder is sometimes an oval. Cows of the third order give 
fifteen quarts and milk six months. 

" The escutcheon of the fourth order is of similar shape, 
but still smaller ; but the tuft on the left of the vulva is 




Third-class— Sely age. 
First Order. 



126 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [260] 

much larger than on the right, and there is no oval on the 
udder. Cows of the fourth order give twelve quarts and 
milk five months." — Hazard. 

The bastard of the third class has a large tuft on each 
side of the vulva. The rapidity with which cows having 
this mark decline in milk will vary with the character of 
the hair on these tufts and the surface covered by them. 
The finer the hair and smaller the tufts the longer the cow 
will give milk. The balance of the escutcheon resembles 
very closely that of the first order of the third class. 

"The Curveline cows are very 
plenty and are of a very good 
grade, approaching the first- 
class. The escutcheon is 
broader than the last two classes 
in the upper part. Their skin 
is of delicate texture and nan- 
■W? keen shade of color on the es- 

cutcheon. The higher and 
broader the curved line rises 
toward the vulva, which it 
never reaches, the better it is. 
There are two ovals on the 
udder. Cows of the first order 

Fourth. Class— CuRVELrNE. , . , . 

First order. of the fourth class give nineteen 

quarts and milk eight months, and sometimes up to 
their next calf." — Hazard. 

Those of the second order have smaller escutcheons of 
the same form as the first, except that there is a narrow 
tuft on the left side of the vulva. They give about seven- 
teen quarts and milk about seven months. 

The third order has still smaller escutcheons with tufts 
on each side of the vulva, that on the left longer than the 
one on the right ; they give fifteen quarts and milk six 
months. 

The fourth order have still smaller escutcheons with 




[261] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



127 



larger and longer tufts by the vulva. They give twelve 
quarts and milk five months. 

The Bastards of this class have escutcheons similar to 
the first order, but have large tufts on each side of the 
vulva. The rapidity with which they will decline in 
milk will depend on the size and shape and the character 
of the hair on these tufts. If the tufts are large and 
pointed and have coarse, bristly hair, they will decline very 
rapidly as soon as they are impregnated. 

This class is not so common 
as the last, nor do the cows 
having this escutcheon yield as 
much milk as those of the 
fourth class. The illustration 
explains itself. Cows of the 
first order of this class yield 
seventeen quarts and milk eight 
months. 

The second order have simi- 
lar escutcheons to the first, but 
smaller, with only one oval on 
the left of the udder. The left 

Fifth ulass— The uiookn. 1 r .v . i • i 

First order. norn °* tne escutcheon is larger 

than the right. They give fifteen quarts and milk seven 
months. 

The third order is still smaller and has a half oval on 
the right thigh escutcheon which reduces its size. They 
give thirteen quarts and milk six months. 

In the fourth order the escutcheon is not only much 
smaller, but has an angular invasion of the thigh 
escutcheon on the right. They give ten quarts and milk 
five months. 

All the cows of this class have the tufts by the vulva, 
which increase in extent from the first order to the fourth, 
that on the left being longer than that on the right. 

The Bastard has the tufts by the vulva much enlarged 




128 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[262] 



and covered with coarse hair. In other respects the 
escutcheon of the bastards is similar to that of the first 
order. 

The cows of the first order of 
this class have a strip of de- 
scending hair reaching from the 
sides of the vulva to the lower 
part of the udder. This strip 
of descending hair is bordered 
on each side by bands of upward 
growing hair. As in other 
classes the cows of the first 
order of this class have a fine 
yellow skin over the region of 
the escutcheon which is covered 
with soft, silky hair. They give 
eighteen quarts and milk eight 
months. 

In the second order the central strip of the vertical es- 
cutcheon terminates higher upon the bag, and the es- 
cutcheon is smaller than the first. 

In the third order the descending belt terminates at the 
upper part of the udder and the escutcheon is very much 
smaller. The cows of this order yield fourteen quarts 
and milk six months. 

In the fourth order the side lines of the vertical es- 
cutcheon terminates before reaching the vulva, in coarse, 
feathery looking hair. The outlines of the thigh escutch- 
eon are also irregular and in size small. Cows of this 
order yield ten quarts and milk five months. 

The Bastards of this class differ from the first only in 
the enlargement of the prongs of the vertical escutcheon 
on each side of the vulva. 




Sixth Class— Double Selvage. 
First Order. 



[263] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



129 




Seventh Class— Demijohn. 
First Order. 



The first order of this class 
has the yellow color of the 
skin, fine hair and oily dandruff 
on the escutcheon indicative of 
good milk. The thigh es- 
cutcheon does not rise so high 
as in the first orders of the 
classes already described. Cows 
of this order yield seventeen 
quarts and remain at the pail 
eight months. 

In the second order the es- 
cutcheon is smaller and lower 
down. It has one oval on the 
left, and the tufts by the vulva. Cows of this order yield 
fifteen quarts and milk seven months. 

In the third order the escutcheon is still smaller, and 
instead of running to a point on the thighs curves down 
from the vertical portion, which is shorter than in the 
second order, the tufts by the vulva are longer than in 
the first and second orders. Cows of this order yield 
thirteen quarts and continue at the pail six months. 

In the fourth order the escutcheon is still smaller and 
more irregular, sometimes having a triangular invasion of 
the thigh escutcheon on the right side. The tufts are not 
well developed and the hair coarse and bristly. Cows of 
this order yield ten quarts and milk five months. 

Bastards of this class have an escutcheon similar to 
that of the first order except that they have the large 
tufts by the vulva. 
9 



130 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[264J 




This escutcheon resembles very 
cfbsely that of the seventh class 
Demijohn — the principal difference 
being found in the vertical es- 
cutcheon which turns squarely off 
to the left, ascending in a narrow 
strip to the left of the vulva. The 
color of the skin is good and the 
hair short and fine. The finer the 
hair the more oily the dandruff and 
more nearly the square approaches 
the vulva the better the cow. Cows 
of this order give seventeen quarts 

Eighth Class— Square Escutch- . 

eon. First order. and continue eight months. 

The second order is similar to the first, but smaller and 
curved on the thighs. There is a small tuft on the right 
of the vulva, and two ovals on the udder. Cows of this 
order should yield thirteen quarts and continue seven 
months. 

In the third order the escutcheon is still smaller, has- 
one oval, and the tuft on the right of the vulva is larger 
and covered with coarse hair. Cows of this order yield 
thirteen quarts and milk six months. 

In the fourth order the escutcheon is very much smaller 
and irregular having an angular invasion on the right 
thigh, and bristly hair on the vertical portion. Cows of 
this order yield ten quarts and milk only five months. 

The bastards of the eighth class have escutcheons sim- 
ilar to those of the first order, but have a large tuft of 
coarse hair on the right of the vulva and an enlargement 
of the vertical escutcheon of similar character on the left. 



[265] 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



131 




The peculiarity of the escutch- 
eons of this class is the termina- 
tion of the vertical portion in a 
sharp point below the vulva. It 
has the good features of other first 
orders. Cows of this order give 
fifteen quarts and continue at the 
pail eight months. 

The second order differs from, 
the first in being smaller in extent, 
terminating farther below the 
vulva, in having the points of the 
thigh escutcheon rounded and the 
tufts by the vulva longer. There is 
one oval on the udder. In this 
order thirteen quarts may be expected and a continuance 
of seven months. « 

The third order is still smaller, the thigh portion curved 
downward from the vertical and the tufts by the vulva 
longer. Cows of this order yield ten quarts and milk 
six months. 

The fourth order is still smaller than the third, the tuft 
by the vulva covered with bristly hair and the left one 
much longer than the right. Cows of this order yield 
only eight quarts and milk but five months. . 

Bastards of this class have escutcheons similar in every 
respect to those of the first order, but have large tufts of. 
bristly hair on both sides of the vulva. 



Ninth Class— Limousine. 
First Order, 



132 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



L266] 




Tenth Class— Horizontal. 
First Order. 



Cows of this order have the 
characteristics of the escutch- 
eons of other first orders, but 
have no vertical escutcheons as 
shown in the illustration. They 
yield only thirteen quarts and 
milk eight months. 

In the second order the es- 
cutcheon is smaller than the 
first, the thigh portion larger on 
the left than on the right. The 
vulva tufts are larger. There is 
only one oval. Cows of this 
order yield only ten quarts 
and continue seven months. 
In the third order the escutcheon is lower down, smaller 
and more irregular in shape with a triangular invasion by 
the descending hair on the right. The vulva tufts are 
also larger with bristly hair. 

The escutcheon of the fourth order of this class is very 
small and defective having a triangular invasion of the 
thigh portion on the right and one of an inward curve on 
the left. The tufts are large and composed of coarse, 
bristly hair. 

The bastards of this class have good large escutcheons 
similar to the first order but having the vulva tufts well 
defined. 

It should be remembered in reference to all the bas- 
tards that the size and form of these tufts indicate the 
rapidity with which the cows will decline in their yield of 
milk after impregnation. If they are large and pointed 
at the ends with coarse hair, they indicate not only that 
the cow will fail rapidly in milk but that the milk will be 
poor in quality. 

The escutcheon is observable also on bulls and takes 
the same forms as on cows, but is of less extent. The 
Curveline and Limousine are most commonly met with. 



[267] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 133 

Bulls for use with dairy cows should be selected with 
reference to their escutcheons which they transmit, prob- 
ably, with more certainty, especially if thoroughbred, than 
do the cows. 

Every farmer who cares to breed good milch cows 
should master this system. It is not necessary to pay 
much attention to the orders lower than the fourth, and 
hence descriptions of them have been omitted. Guenon 
gave eight orders. 

The estimates made of the yield of the different classes 
and orders are based upon the supposition that the cows 
receive from calf-hood good attention and abundant food. 
If these have been neglected the actual yield will most 
probably fall below the estimate. As already remarked 
the characteristics of the different breeds of cattle must 
also be taken into consideration. 



134 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[268] 




^^^aTcK^^ra 



ksm Hh 



%, 



'QfCtiTY OF J. L f/OffONS,- 



CHAPTER XII. 



MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND BUTTER. 



The first requisite, and one to which too little attention 
is given, is to have good, healthy cows, kindly and humanely 
treated. Nutritious food and pure, fresh water are abso- 
lutely necessary to the production of good milk. It is 
not sufficient to guard the milk while being drawn and 
during its subsequent management to secure purity. If 
the cows drink stagnant water, or that polluted by sewer 
drainage or other impurities, they cannot produce pure or 
even drinkable milk. Such water is infested with micro- 
scopic animalculae, and the spores of fungi which, taken 
into the system by the cow, produce a feverish condition 
of the animal, and passing into the milk secretions, are 
drawn with the milk in which the animalculae propagate, 
and the fungoid spores germinate, causing disease in those 
who consume the milk. Milk may be polluted also by 
cows breathing impure and offensive air arising from filthy 
stalls, or decaying animal or vegetable matter. It is not 



J269] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 135 

unusual to see cows, especially in cities, leave their stalls 
with manure caked on their sides ; such cows kept in such 
stalls cannot yield pure milk. Milk has been known to 
foe tainted by cows inhaling the offensive odor of carrion 
•exposed in their pastures. When the carrion was removed 
the milk, from the same cows, grazing in the same pasture, 
and with all other surroundings the same as before, was 
no longer tainted. 

BAD ODORS ABSORBED BY MILK. 

The room in which milk is kept should be scrupulously 
neat, used for nothing but milk, and thoroughly ventilated 
with pure air. If meats or vegetables are kept in the 
same room with milk it will absorb odors from them, 
which will affect the flavor both of the milk and of the 
butter made from it. 

Willard, in his work on " Practical Dairy Husbandry," 
mentions a case which came under the observation of Mr. 
Lawson Tait, F. R. C. S., of Birmingham, England, in 
which the milk of a dairy was tainted by a peculiar smoky 
taste by asphalting the floor of the dairy and the surface 
adjacent to it. This suggested to him that it would ab- 
sorb " other things which were not so innocuous," and he 
instituted some experiments to test its absorbing power. 
He says : "I at once set going a series of experiments 
which have led me to the belief that milk is an extremely 
dangerous agent for the spread of contagion. ... By 
inclosing fresh milk under bell-jars with tar, turpentine, 
assafcetida, feces, urine, etc., I found that in most in- 
stances the milk became impregnated with the smell, and 
sometimes with that intensely disagreeable sensation 
known as the taste ' like the smell ' of the substances em- 
ployed. The degree to which this was acquired seemed 
not so much to be in proportion to the amount employed 
either of milk or of infectant substance, but to the amount 



136 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [270] 

and quality of the cream which rose to the surface of the 
milk; the oleaginous molecules seeming to act as the 
menstruum of contagion. This is not unlikely, when we 
remember that the best solvent for nearly all odoriferous 
principles is oil. . . . If we bethink ourselves of any 
instances of diseases which might in certain instances be 
communicated by milk, typhoid fever stands out with 
fearful probability." 

The necessity, therefore, of pure water, clean stalls and 
wholesome food for dairy cows, as well as the importance 
of setting the milk in a pure atmosphere, free from the 
presence of any matter from which it could absorb offen- 
sive taints, will be appreciated. 

Those having the care of milk cannot be too scrupulous 
as to cleanliness, not only in the apartment in which it is 
kept, but in the vessels used to contain it, and the water 
employed in cleansing them. 

There are two principal systems now in use where much 
attention is given to dairy husbandry, viz : the Cooly and 
kindred systems in which the milk is set in deep pans, 
immersed in cool water, and the Furguson plan, in which 
a cool current of air instead of water is used. Neither is 
practicable in the South, under ordinary circumstances, 
since ice is required in each system. 

Those who have cool springs conveniently located can 
use the Cooly system. There has, of late years, been 
much discussion in the Agricultural press upon the merits 
of these systems, and the appliances used in each have re- 
ceived from year to year such improvements as the expe- 
rience of practical dairymen have suggested, until now 
they seem to have almost reached perfection. 

The relative merits of deep or shallow pans for raising 
the cream have also been freely ventilated through the 
agricultural press, but the advocates of the different plans 
have viewed the matter from such widely different stand- 
points that often both have been right when their sur- 



[271] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 137 

roundings have been ascertained, while both were wrong 
in endeavoring to insist upon the universal adoption of 
either system regardless of surrounding circumstances. In 
this, as in every other department of husbandry, one must 
be controlled, to a large extent, by the surrounding circum- 
stances. In the South the deep pans may be adopted to 
advantage by those who have spring-houses, or who have 
their dairies adjacent to wells of cool water, with appli- 
ances for running the water around the milk at short in- 
tervals of time. In the absence of these conveniences, a 
cool basement-room on the north side of the house into 
which the cool morning-air is admitted and from which 
the heated noon-air is excluded, but with ample ventila- 
tion from above, will probably give most satisfactory re- 
sults. 

The sub-earth ducts by which a cool current of air is 
conducted for some distance under the earth into the dairy 
and the warm air conducted out through the top, the cur- 
rent being induced by a heated flew, or large lamps at the 
top of the dairy, if on a small scale, have been successfully 
adopted in some localities. The air is cooled and purified 
by its passage through the sub-earth ducts, and enters the 
dairy cool and fresh, and is constantly renewed by the re- 
moval of the warm air from above. 

On ordinary farms in the South, so little preparation is 
made for the care of milk that it cannot be said that any 
system prevails, either as to arrangement of dairies or as 
to the manner of setting the milk. 

If the surroundings are such that the milk is necessarily 
exposed to a high temperature, and consequently sours in 
a short time, shallow pans are best, since they admit of a 
more prompt rising of the cream. If a low temperature 
can be maintained, the deep pans are more convenient. 
Milk should be set as promptly as possible after it is 
drawn, since if the cream has begun to rise before strain- 
ing, it is re-mingled with the milk, and will not so readily 
separate itself again. 



13S A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [272] 

WHAT IS CREAM, AND WHY DOES IT RISE TO THE 
SURFACE ? 

Cream is an aggregation of globules of oily matter, 
varying in size in the milk of different breeds of cattle, as 
well as in the milk of the same cow. These globules con- 
tain the butter inclosed in sacs. They, having less specific 
gravity than the watery parts of the milk, rise to the sur- 
face, the larger ones first, and the balance in the order of 
their size, the smaller rising last. In the milk of Jersey 
cows the globules are larger than in that of those of other 
breeds, and hence the cream rises more promptly in the 
former than in the latter. In the milk of the same cow, 
however, the globules differ in size. The larger ones 
having a greater quantity of the oily matter in a body are 
lighter, and hence rise first. In deep pans this arrange- 
ment of the globules in the cream in the order of their 
size is more complete than in shallow pans. 

CHURNING 

Is simply such an agitation of the cream separately, or 
of the cream mingled with the entire milk, as will rupture 
the enveloping cases of these globules, liberating the oily 
particles, which, cohering to each other, " collect " and 
form butter. The globules in Jersey milk, being larger 
than those in other milk, and the encasing sacs more 
tender, it requires less agitation and a shorter time to get 
the butter from it. The globules also being more uniform 
in size, the butter " comes " more nearly all at once, and 
hence there is less risk of over-churning, and the grain is 
better preserved. 

In milk in which there is greater difference in the size 
of the globules, the larger ones are ruptured some time 
before the smaller ones, and hence the grain of the first 
that " comes " is destroyed by over-churning before the oily 
matter is liberated from the smaller globules. 



[273] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 139 

The same effect is produced by churning old cream with 
new. The sacs of the older cream are more tender, and 
are ruptured more easily than those of the new, and, as 
before, over-churning occurs. 

The same effect is produced by too rapid churning, or 
by the use of dashes with cutting edges, such as the tur- 
bine wheel dash, perforated tin funnels, etc. 

Avoid all dashes and churns which claim to get butter 
from new milk in five minutes. While this is possible, the 
texture and consequently the quality of the butter is in- 
jured. 

To secure good results in butter, milk should be kept 
at as nearly a uniform temperature as possible, and should 
be neither too warm nor too cold when churned. If too 
cold, it will foam, and require long churning to get the 
butter; if too warm, the butter, when it "corne^" will be 
too soft to gather and of poor quality, both as to color 
and texture. From 65 ° to Jo° F. is the best temperature 
that can be attained in this climate, under ordinary circum- 
stances, and one at which churning is easily done. 

Butter is often injured by over-working after it is taken 
from the churn. When this is the case, it has the same 
clammy and tallowy texture that results from over-churn- 
ing. The grain is destroyed by heating or excessive 
working, especially when it is warm during the operation. 
The only object in working butter at all is to free it from 
the milk that becomes entangled in it during the processes 
of churning and collecting it. There are various mechani- 
cal appliances in use for removing the milk from butter, 
some of which are highly recommended by practical dairy- 
men. 



140 



A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 



[274] 




That represented by 
the accompanying illus- 
tration is in use in some 
of the largest Jersey 
dairies in this State, and 
is perhaps the best in 
use. It effectually re- 
moves the milk without 
injuring the grain of the 
butter. There is no ex- 
cuse for the production 
of white or inferior but- 
ter in Georgia, if the 
proper food is provided 
for the cows, and milk 
and butter are correctly 
managed ; yet "country 
butter" in our cities is almost synonymous with poor 
butter, especially during the winter. With our facilities 
for providing green food for cows during winter, our best 
butter should be made then, and is in some dairies, which 
are carefully and judiciously managed. 

So rich and yellow was the butter from the dairy of 
Mr. J. B. Wade, of DeKalb county, last winter, that pur- 
chasers objected to it on account of the color, suspecting 
the use of artificial coloring matter. 

The use of annotto for coloring butter is quite common 
in Northern dairies during winter when green food cannot 
be had for the cows. This is a red coloring matter ob- 
tained in South America and the West Indies from the 
pulp surrounding the seeds of the annotto tree (Bixa 
orellana) It is considered perfectly innoxious, but since 
it adds nothing to the flavor of the butter, and is used to 
impart the appearance of first-class butter to what is in 
reality an inferior article, it is a species of deception 
which, to say the least of it, is not commendable. 



[275] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 141 

OLEOMAEGAEINE 

Is an imitation of butter which so nearly resembles it in 
appearance as to deceive the unsuspicious. Large quanti- 
ties of it are sold as butter without detection, even by the 
consumer. It retains its consistency under a warm tem- 
perature better than butter, and hence bears shipment 
better and keeps longer. Analysis shows it to contain 
substantially the same ingredients as pure butter and to 
possess no properties deleterious to health. Recent ex- 
periments with this compound, however, show that it 
forms an emulsion less readily than pure butter, and hence 
is supposed to be less readily absorbed by the system. 

If sold as oleomargarine, there seems to be no reasona- 
ble objection to its sale ; but if sold as pure butter, as is 
generally the case, a fraud is perpetrated upon the pur- 
chaser and consumer which should be punishable under 
the law. 

It can be detected very readily by the peculiar odor 
derived from the oil of tallow used in its manufacture. 

The fat of beeves is ground or finely cut by machinery 
made for the purpose, and then subjected, in steam-heated 
vats, to a temperature of 150 F., causing the greater part 
of the fat to separate from the fibre and rise to the surface. 
This is drawn off with a syphon into a water-bath, and 
salt added to hasten clarification. It is then drawn off, 
and allowed to solidify somewhat. It is then pressed, the 
part remaining, being principally stearine, is rejected ; the 
part which flows off is churned with milk to impart some- 
what of the flavor of butter to it, and then seasoned with 
salt and colored with annotto. The whole process of 
manufacture is cleanly and the product an excellent imita- 
tion of butter, and if fresh, healthy fat is used for its 
manufacture, it contains nothing injurious to health. 
Vegetable oil, such as pea-nut oil, is sometimes used in 
its manufacture, when much stearine is retained, for the 



142 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [276] 

purpose of reducing its melting point more nearly to that 
of pure butter. 

KEEPING BUTTER. 

A cheap and effectual method of keeping butter through 
the winter is as follows : Work the milk from the butter 
as thoroughly as possible, pack firmly in stone jars, cover 
with an inch of fine salt even with the top of the jars, tie 
a cloth tightly over them, and invert in a cool, dry room. 
The butter thus packed in September will be perfectly 
fresh and sweet when opened in spring. Another plan 
practiced by some is to wrap pound packages in cloth and 
immerse in sweet brine made of strong s^lt. 

A Virginia lady writes : " I have tried two methods of 
keeping butter successfully from September to the follow- 
ing May or June; one by packing in stone jars, covering 
an inch deep in salt, binding a cloth tightly over it, and 
turning it upside down. The other is to tie each churning 
in a clean cloth and drop it into brine, keeping it well 
pressed under. This brine must be as strong as it can be 
made — boiled, skimmed and strained. In either of these 
methods the butter must be pure to keep well. It is such 
an absorbent, it is all important to keep it free from all 
odors, and to have all vessels in which the milk is kept or 
in which butter is packed kept exclusively for that pur- 
pose. Butter must of course be well worked, taking care 
not to break the grain. If the grain is broken it will not 
keep at all. The brine effectually excludes the air and 
keeps the butter in exactly the same condition in which 
it was put away. If some rolls have less salt than others, 
they will not be altered by the brine, as one would sup- 
pose. I prefer this method to packing in stone jars — it is 
more reliable and far less trouble. If wooden vessels are 
used, they should be of oak." 

If, however, dairy farms are properly managed in 
Georgia, there will be no necessity for packing butter for 



[277] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 143 

winter use. Winter dairying, with our facilities for pro- 
ducing green food during the entire year, should be made 
a specialty, and " gilt-edge" butter sent from Georgia to 
the Northern markets. 

This will be further discussed in the chapter on "Grasses 
and Other Forage Crops." 



CHAPTER XIII. 



HOW TO JUDGE A BEEF— BUTCHERING, AND HOW IT 
SHOULD BE DONE. CORNED BEEF—COOKING BEEF, Etc.* 

It is important that those who sell as well as those 
who buy should be able to judge of a beef on the hoof. 
There are certain points which indicate the degree of 
fatness and the quality of the meat, a few of which will 
be noticed. As remarked in the chapter on the 
different breeds of cattle, beef-producing qualities vary 
with the breed. Like capacity for milk-production, that 
of beef-production has been developed by careful selection 
and breeding. The Texas steer or one reared on " the 
range" in Georgia, contrasted with an improved Short 
Horn or Hereford ox both as to size, form and quality of 
the meat, illustrates better than any description can, the 
wonderful improvement wrought by skillful selection, 
breeding and feeding. In the former the flesh and fat are 
taken on irregularly, and often as otherwise in the less 
desirable parts of the carcass, while in the latter they are 
more uniformly distributed and placed principally on the 
most desirable parts. It is economy, therefore, if beef is the 
object of the breeder, to select one of the early maturing 
easy fattening, beef-producing breeds, since they give 
more and better beef for a given quantity of food than the 
slow-growing, less compact kinds. For beef animals in 



14-i A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [278] 

Georgia a cross of a Short Horn or Hereford bull on 
the common cow will give fine results. Many who 
will read this are familiar with the influence of such a 
cross on the native cows of a neighborhood in the 
improvement in the size and appearance of the cattle- 
The effects of such a cross made in Hancock county in 
1861-62 and '63 are still visible. 

The ratio of flesh to " offal" determines the true value 
of an animal for beef purposes. 

The body of a properly formed beef animal, when 
thoroughly fatted, should, to use Allen's expression, " be 
nearly an oblong square." In such an animal there is 
very little " offal" compared with the valuable parts. 
Such form implies well-arched ribs, giving ample chest 
capacity for the accommodation of full lungs and sound 
digestive organs, broad hips, a well filled twist, a heavy 
brisket and full flank. 

The hind quarters furnish the most valuable part of the 
beef — such form implies full development of these parts 
with small bone, well-rounded hams, marbled flesh, and a 
uniform distribution of fat over the entire carcass. 

An animal with a narrow, flat chest, long legs, small 
hips, heavy head, large bone and flat hams will prove 
profitable, neither to the breeder, grazier, the butcher nor 
the consumer. Few animals with large head and large 
bone and flat hams will prove profitable feeders or good 
beef, while one with small head, fine bone and a flexible 
skin will generally fatten well and yield tender, fine- 
grained, juicy beef. Experienced judges of cattle rely 
much upon what is technically called the " handling" 
which has reference to the "feel" of the skin and the flesh 
immediately under it. A "hard handler," says Allen, "is 
one with a tight, close skin, with little or no yielding of 
the flesh beneath ; a " soft" or " good handler" denotes an 
elastic or springy touch, both skin and flesh yielding, like 
a small, hollow India-rubber ball, to the pressure of the 



[279] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 145 

fingers, and the skin easy of movement over the flesh — 
not flabby, as is sometimes the case with a very thin- 
skinned and sleazily made-up animal. A ' hard handler,' 
denotes a bad and slow feeder, and tough meat. A 
" soft" or " good handler" denotes tender, juicy meat, and 
a quick, profitable feeder. 

To the eye there are also certain points which reliably 
indicate the degree of fatness and the quality of the meat. 
Besides the size and fineness of the head and bone, the 
following points should be carefully noticed as indicating 
a high degree of fatness, and being well developed only 
on well fatted cattle. These are the roll back of the 
shoulder, shown as the animal walks, a plump and " well 
let down" flank, full twist or " breeching," as sometimes 
called, and, if a bullock, a full, round cod. Rolls of fat on 
each side of the root of the tail also indicate an advanced 
stage of fatness. The ribs of a very poor ox show prom- 
inently, those of a moderately fat one show but little, 
while those of a very fat animal appear prominent on 
account of the accumulation of fat on the outside. A 
careful observation of these points, together with the 
* handling" and general square, plump form of the animal 
will rarely deceive one in judging a fat beef. 

BUTCHERING 

Should be understood by every farmer, whether he 
expects to perform the operation himself or not, since 
under our system of labor, with the frequent changes 
occurring in the labor employed on the farm, the farmer 
can have no assurance that he will have in his employ a 
man who knows how to butcher a beef. 

It is not proposed to give detailed directions for butch- 
ering but simply to make a few suggestions which may be 
of service to the inexperienced. The best way to learn 
how to butcher is to assist an experienced butcher in 
the performance of the operation, observing closely every 
part of the process. 
10 



146 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [280 J. 

The animal to be slaughtered should be prepared for it 
by a fast of twelve or eighteen hours in order to relieve 
somewhat the distention of the intestines, and thus facil- 
itate their manipulation. 

It matters not whether the axe or the rifle be used for 
killing, provided' it be so executed as not to injure the flesh 
of the beast, and provided the knife is promptly used on 
the neck veins to insure thorough bleeding, and the animal 
be placed in a position favorable to the effusion of the 
blood. As early as possible after the bleeding the hide 
should be stripped from the hind legs, a gambrel inserted 
and the animal hung up. The practice of skinning on the 
ground is a slovenly one and seriously injures the appear- 
ance and" quality of the meat so slaughtered. If one has 
not a scaffold with rope and windlass, a stout pole, with 
one end resting on the ground and the other in the fork of 
a tree, on a side hill, will answer very well. Have the beef 
to drop with head down hill at the end of the pole, and as 
soon as ready slip the gambrel up the pole until the animal 
swings. If no suitable tree stands on a side hill at a 
convenient distance from the farm-house, a fork or post 
may be substituted. The utmost neatness should be 
observed in the preparation of the meat, which should 
not be cut until cold and firm. 

When beef is butchered in cool weather, say in Decem- 
ber, so much of it as is intended for steak may be hung in 
a cool place without salt, and steak cut from it as needed, 
rubbing a little dry meal over the freshly cut part to pre- 
vent drying and crusting. The longer the meat hangs 
without salt the more tender the steak will be. Salt 
hardens and toughens meat, and should be used on beef 
only when necessary for its preservation. No matter how 
well fatted beef may be,or how carefully and neatly butch- 
ered, steak must be cooked well to be eatable. A poor 
steak well cooked is better than a choice one poorly pre- 
pared. Broiling steak is a very simple process and yet we 



[281] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 147 

rarely find a properly broiled steak on either public or 
private tables. 

The too common practice of pounding or chopping 
steak for the purpose of making it tender has the effect 
of depriving it of its juices, its very essence, leaving, 
only the fiber of the cellular structure. The prime object 
in broiling a steak should be to preserve the juices in the 
steak itself, and not in the gravy. Pounding steak before 
cooking, and then extracting its juices into the gravy, to 
be used with it, reminds one of grinding apples, pressing, 
out the juice and then pouring the cider over the pulp to 
season it to make it palatable. The gridiron was formerly: 
used exclusively for broiling steak, but this is by no means 
necessary. An ordinary pan will answer quite as well. 
Place the pan on the stove until quite hot. Cut the steak 
of uniform thickness — from half to three-fourths inch — lay 
it in the pan, using care to have every point of it come in 
contact with the hot pan, and turn rapidly to avoid burn- 
ing. Have butter, pepper and salt in a hot dish at hand 
— with a little of this baste the steak when nearly done to 
increase the flavor if desired, or simply lay the steak in 
the dish and with a spoon pour some of the butter over 
it. The object in having the pan hot when commencing 
to broil the steak is to sear the outer surface to coagulate 
the albumen, and thus prevent the escape of the juices. 
Rapid turning is necessary to prevent over-cooking the 
outside before the interior is sufficiently done. When 
" rare done" the inside of the steak will be red, but when 
cut no blood will escape. At this stage it is more tender, 
better flavored and more digestible than when cooked 
more. The best steak will be tough if cooked slowly. 
The ordinary method of frying beaten steak with lard 
destroys the flavor of the steak, and renders it less digesti- 
ble than when properly broiled. 

In baking or roasting beef, it should be subjected at first 
to a high degree of heat, as in broiling steak, to coagulate 



'T4S A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [282] 

the albumen of the surface to prevent the escape of its 
nutritious fluids ; this done, it should be subjected to a 
slow heat until the interior is cooked to redness, but so 
that the juices which escape when cut will not be 
tinged with blood. A little water should be put into the 
pan in the commencement of the operation, and the sur- 
face of the meat basted repeatedly during the progress of 
the cooking, with the gravy from the pan or oven. When 
the slow heat is applied " dredge" the meat with flour to 
serve the double purpose of closing the pores of the 
surface and of imparting a pleasant brownness to the meat 
when cooked. Roasting and baking are used to indicate 
the same process, the only difference being the exclusion 
of air in the latter and its admission in the former process. 
If fresh meats are to be boiled they should first be 
immersed in boiling water for a few minutes, and then cold 
water added to, reduce the temperature to a mere simmer- 
ing, which should be continued until the meat is done. 
The usual rule as to time is twenty minutes to the pound 
of meat. The scum that rises to the top while boiling 
should be removed. In boiling meat to be eaten as such, 
we desire to retain the juices as much as possible in the 
meat, and hence it is first immersed in boiling water to 
coagulate the albumen of the surface. In boiling for soup 
we desire to extract the nutritious juices from the meat, 
and hence it is put into cold water over a slow fire, and 
gradually brought to the boiling point. If vegetables are 
used in the soup, they should be boiled separately and 
added to the soup before it is done. If put fresh into the 
boiling soup they will be toughened and will not boil 
to pieces. The head and hoof of beeves are thrown 
away by some, while by others they are highly esteemed. 
Several choice dishes may be made from the beef's head. 
If boiled thoroughly and cut fine, it may be made into 
pies or stews, or placed in a dish with bread crumbs on 
top and thoroughly browned. These dishes are seasoned 



[283] A MANUAL ON CATTLE.' 149' 

with pepper, salt and perhaps a little onion to suit the- 
taste, and are both good and economical. Another dish 
is made from it by chopping it fine, and mixing it with 
some cold ham — fat and lean — bread crumbs and an egg 
or two. Knead them well together, form into round or 
oval balls, roll in a little flour and fry a light brown. 
The head of a large beef will not cost, at most, more 
than twenty-five cents, and will supply an ordinary family 
for several days with choice dishes. 

The feet nicely dressed and thoroughly boiled (besides 
making nice neats-foot oil) if cut up fine, rolled in flour 
and egg and fried, make a choice dish. For making 
soup, no part of the beef is equal to the tail. 

CORNED BEEF 
Should be in the store-room of every farmer's wife 
during winter and spring. An experienced housekeeper 
of Virginia sends the following recipe for preparing it : 
" Salt the beef as usual, adding a " pinch" of saltpetre to 
each piece. Let it remain in salt three days, drain off the 
bloody brine formed by the salt, and wipe each piece with 
a clean towel and re-pack in the tub — a syrup or molasses 
cask will answer. For the brine, take as much water as 
will cover the beef and add salt until it will no longer dis- 
solve it, a tea-cup of ground saltpetre and a quart of 
molasses, or its equivalent of brown sugar. Boil this and 
skim well. When entirely cold, pour over the beef and 
keep it well pressed under the brine. These proportions 
will answer for 200 pounds of beef. Should the brine 
mould in warm weather, re-boil and skim, adding half 
-pound of bi-carbonate of soda, and when cold return to 
the beef. Corned beef should be boiled until the bones 
can be taken out and allowed to cool in the liquor in 
which it was boiled. It should not be cut while warm." 
Pieces of the beef which would be inferior if cooked while 
fresh make delicious meat when corned by this recipe. 



150 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [284] 

The " round of beef," or a piece cut from the thigh where 
the best round steak is taken, cutting entirely through 
with a thickness of six or eight inches, makes when 
corned by the above recipe a delicious dish either boiled 
and eaten cold or broiled with butter and pepper. 



CHAPTER V. 

SOME DISEASES TO WHICH C \TTLE ARE SUBJECT 
IN THE SOUTH. 

There is probably no country in the world in which 
cattle are more exempt from disease, or in which they 
are subject to so few diseases, as in the South. In 
colder climates where it is necessary to protect cattle in 
warm houses during winter, they are liable to many seri- 
ous complaints almost unknown in Southern herds, such 
as consumption, pneumonia, and other diseases resulting 
from climatic influences, and defective ventilation in the 
barns in which they are kept in winter. 

A full discussion of the diseases of cattle cannot be had 
in a single chapter of a work limited in scope as is this by 
the small fund which can be devoted to printing, nor is 
such full discussion necessary in a work prepared espe- 
cially for Georgia farmers, who will be better served by 
confining the discussion to diseases which are likely to oc- 
cur in their herds. 

RED-WATER 

is the only disease which is at all fatal to cattle in Geor- 
gia, and hence the larger part of this chapter will be de- 
voted to its discussion. Fortunately for the objects in 
view, this disease has recently prevailed in some of the 
finest Jersey herds in the State, and has received at the 
hands of the Jersey breeders the most careful attention. 



',[285] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 151 

Advantage is therefore taken of their so recent experience 
and observation, the results of which are given for the 
guidance of others whose herds may in the future suffer 
from the attacks of this our most fatal cattle disease. 

At the request of the Commissioner of Agriculture, sev- 
eral gentlemen who have had practical experience with 
this disease have given the results of their experience and 
observation for the benefit of the farmers of the State. 

In Jxily last this disease broke out in the choice herd of 
Jerseys, of Maj. W. B. Cox, of Atlanta, on his farm in De 
Kalb county. Under date of Sep. 1st, 1880, Dr. H. L. 
Wilson, who attended Maj. Cox's cattle, writes: 

"At the request of Maj. W. B. Cox, I give you some 
facts relative to the recent sickness in his herd of Jersey 
cattle. Immediately succeeding the heated term in July, 
his cattle that were then at the pail, began first to decline 
in milk and in from twelve to twenty-four hours refused 
to take food. With drooping heads they stood in a drawn 
position evidently in pain. The urine was quite red at 
first, hence the common name of the disease, "Red-Water" 
— and continued to deepen in color until it was like port 
wine, just before death. 

"After he had lost one or two, I went out to his farm to 
endeavor to assist him, if possible, in saving the balance from 
death. I had a post-mortem examination and found the 
last stomach in a high state of inflammation, extending 
through the duodenum, or first intestine. The gall-blad- 
der was distended until it was as big as a large cocoanut, 
the bladder almost ready to burst from distention with 
bloody urine. 

"The kidney, and in some instances, in subsequent post- 
mortems, the liver, was congested. 

"His herd had been grazing on a very rich bottom, cov- 
ered with clover and grass. My opinion was that the 
succulent feed that was in a high state of development, 
and the excessive heat were the causes of the trouble. I 



152 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [286] 

therefore advised active purgation ; but all attempts at 
thorough purging failed, save in one animal. I gave salts 
and lard freely, but with no good results. One cow, Op- 
tima, the queen of his herd, was powerfully purged, and 
directly afterwards I ordered fluid extract of ergot, one 
ounce, and spirits of turpentine, two teaspoonfulls, given 
with drench of flax-seed tea and lime-water. She con- 
tinued to improve and is now well, but seven others died. 
Now, remember that all of those that died failed to purge,, 
and died in from twelve to thirty-six hours after 
failing to give milk or to eat. Immediately after this 
sickness, Maj. Cox removed all of his stock to a highland 
pasture, in which there is plenty of shade and a spring 
branch. Here they did well until the last week in Au- 
gust when seven more were attacked in the same way, two 
of which died, making his loss within a few weeks amount 
to nine in number. Now, is it epidemic, or heat, or ex- 
cessive feed in damp low-grounds, or what is the cause? 
I am informed that quite a number of cattle have been 
similarly attacked and have recovered, but I do not be- 
lieve that they could have been so malignantly sick as 
those I saw. I am satisfied that unless actively and 
promptly purged they invariably die." 

Mr. J. B. Wade, under date of Atlanta, Aug. 26th, 1880, 
writes : 

"During last year and the year before, nearly all of my 
Jerseys at 'Oak Shade Farm,' in DeKalb county, were 
sick. As all of them were brought from the North, I 
think the sickness was caused by a change of climate. 
None have, as yet, had a second attack. The first case 
occurred in July, the last on the 29th of October. The 
symptoms among those of mine that were attacked, were 
all similar in their characteristics, and were so marked that 
the most inexperienced person would not fail to detect 
the sick animal. In the case of milch cows, the first symp- 
tom noticed was a total cessation of milk secretion. In 



[287] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 153 

every case the animal would lie down with its neck stretch- 
ed forward, under jaw resting on the ground, ears droop- 
ed, eyes half closed and running water, a clear, ropy dis- 
charge from the nostrils, no 'sweat' on the end of the nose, 
which an animal in good health always has, a constant 
gritting of the teeth. The worst cases would utter a low, 
plaintive moan and seem to be in much pain, and would 
offer no resistance when drenched or injected. If stand- 
ing, the back would be drawn up and the head drooped. 
A rapid emaciation begins with the commencement of the 
disease. With the exception of one or two cases out of 
probably twenty, obstinate constipation was a symptom. 
Two cases began with bloody urine, but with all the 
others this was an after symptom. In every case there 
was high fever, quick pulse and hot, dry skin. 

"To move the bowels as quickly as possible was my 
aim. To effect this I gave a cow a quart of lard, warmed 
sufficiently to liquify it, and immediately followed it with 
a quart of flax-seed tea. If there is no action from the 
bowels in two hours, repeat the dose in smaller quantity, 
say one pint — if still no effect from the lard, in four hours 
more give another pint. I gave a quart of flax-seed tea every 
two hours until four or five doses were taken, I injected 
the first cases I had with soap-suds, but do not think this 
did any good. 

"In cases of constipation, the first operations will be 
very compacted, hard, dry and black, and in small quan- 
tity. For this I did not stop giving the lard, but contin- 
ued it in pint doses 'till the feces became softer, of lighter 
color and more copious. Then another trouble began. 
When the lard did take effect it would produce a violent 
case of the scours, and if the cow was with calf this would 
produce abortion. Several persons told me that Epsom 
salts should have been substituted for the lard, and I tried 
it in a few cases but found it was slower in its effects, and 
so went back to the lard, thinking it better to lose the 
calf than to let both die. 



154: A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [288] 

"The object of the flax-seed tea was to operate on the 
kidneys, and in every case, at the beginning, this was given 
whether they had bloody urine or not, and when they did 
have it, I continued to drench with the flax-seed tea till 
the urine changed from the bloody color. When the attack 
was broken and they began to convalesce, the first food 
they were given was two or three pieces of dried beef, the 
size and length of the little finger. The first piece would 
have to be forced into the mouth and held there till they 
chewed and swallowed it. After that they would follow 
around for more. They were given a few pieces of the beef 
several times a day for two or three days, or until they had 
an appetite for bran and hay. The beef is an appetizing and 
nutritious diet. Every case I had recovered and in two 
or three weeks, they were as fat as ever and livelier than 
they were before they were sick. I should have men- 
tioned that I gave them shorts or bran with a very little 
ground flax-seed as soon as they would eat. If much flax 
seed is put in the bran they will not eat it. I have had 
only one case of an animal being sick that was to the 
'manor born,' and that was a calf three months old. He 
had no 'Red-water' symptoms, but in all other respects was 
sick just as the others were." 

Judge John L. Hopkins, whose stock farm is near At- 
lanta, in Fulton County, under date of September 2, 
writes : 

" Immediately after Major Cox's losses from the disease 
called i Red-water ' I reported the cases to the National 
Live Stock Journal and also to the Country Gentleman. 
The matter was referred by the Journal to Dr. Paaran and 
by the Country Gentleman to Dr. Moore, both of whom 
are educated, competent veterinary surgeons. I enclose 
their replies. Dr. Paaran's prescription was received first, 
and I used it mainly, but Dr. Moore's was used also, both 
with satisfactory results. I had in my herd five severe 
cases, four of them my very choicest animals. They were 



[289] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 155 

all saved, and undoubtedly it was accomplished by this 
treatment. It should be understood that death cannot be 
averted unless the disease is promptly and courageously 
met at the start. A few hours' delay and death is almost 
certain. I inspect every animal on my place twice a day, 
and all during the day they are under the eye of Mr. Mar- 
tin, the herdsman. The very moment that a change oc- 
curs it may be observed. The practical, observant man, 
who is familiar with his cow, can tell in an instant whether 
there is anything wrong with her just as certainly as he 
can say whether it is joy or sorrow that is depicted in the 
countenance of a familiar friend. When that change 
comes it must be met then and there, as it will be too late. 
Should the flow of milk fall off suddenly, without a known 
cause, such as fright, excitement, etc., or should the appe- 
tite fail, do not wait for more, it is safe to resort to the 
remedies at once. The linseed tea should be made from 
the seed unground, to be sure that it is pure, and the tea 
should be as strong as it can be made. Let the portion 
be over rather than under a quart, and let the medicine be 
administered by the watch. A negligent or unfaithful at- 
tendant will be of no service. With the first discharge of 
red water the animal appears to almost let go of life, and 
then, after the bowels are moved, the hope lies in linseed, 
the gentian and iron. Drs. Paaran and Moore unite with 
others in attributing the disease generally to low land or 
inferior pasturage, and that may throw some off their 
guard. Helga — one of my cows, and the very queen of 
Jerseys — had the disease, and hers was one of the most 
stubborn cases. About three weeks before she took sick 
she slipped a horn. She was tethered in a lucerne field, 
within reach of the shade of some apple trees. The 
tether was moved from day to day, and she was kept on 
that purest and best of pastures, lucerne and crab-grass. 
She was given bran, and had oil-cake also. The other cat- 
tle were fed freely on green corn, bran, oil-cake and cotton 



156 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [290] 

seed meal, and ran on young orchard-grass pasture. I am 
satisfied that Helga was gorged with her green food and 
the others with the green corn. I at once purged every 
animal on the place, and let them down for a few days 
from the high feeding, and then gradually and cautiously 
returned to a proper diet. The disease has not re-ap- 
peared." 

Dr. Paaran's reply to Judge Hopkins' inquiry, taken 
from the Natio7ial Live Stock Journal of August, 1880: 

" According to the description, the disease from which 
the cows died was no doubt the so-called Red-water. It is 
stated that the cows were kept in a low meadow, with 
high and rank grasses. Such land, besides containing 
coarse and innutritious grasses, very frequently contains 
also plants or shrubs possessing acrid, bitter or astringent 
principles. The consumption of such herbage in un- 
limited quantities is often productive of serious disorders, 
and especially of irritative fever and inflammation of the 
urinary organs. We are requested to suggest preventive 
and corrective measures. Prevention consists in discon- 
tinuing the use of such grounds for pasturage and remov- 
ing the animals to grounds, preferably higher ones, and 
which contain no deleterious herbage. In the beginning 
of the disease a purgative dose should be given, consist- 
ing, according to the age of the animal, of from one pound 
to a pound and a half of Epsom salts dissolved in a pint of 
hot water, to which has been added a pint of treacle (mo- 
lasses). Also give, every hour, a quart of linseed tea, 
besides injection, per rectum, of linseed tea. When 
the bowels have been attended to, stimulants and 
tonics should be administered, to counteract the prevailing 
great lassitude and weakness, such as an ounce each of 
aromatic spirits of ammonia and compound tincture of 
gentian, or an ounce each of compound tincture of gentian 
and tincture of per-chloride of iron, either of which should 
be given in a pint of cold gruel or linseed tea, and repeated 



[291] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 157 

every two or three hours. Give all the linseed tea the 
animal will drink, and feed on gruel or steamed or boiled 
food." 

The following inquiry by Judge Hopkins and reply by 
Dr. Moore are taken from the Country Gentleman of Au- 
gust 12, 1880: 

RED-WATER IN CATTLE. 
" A terrible cattle disease has recently been prevailing 
here. Its first symptom is the passage of red urine and 
the discharge of matter from the nose that scalds the skin 
of the nostril. As the disease progresses the urine turns 
darker, and when, finally, it gets dead black, there is no 
escape from death. The cows were sick two or three days. 
They had every possible attention, and every known rem- 
edy was applied, but to no purpose. One of the cows 
was cut open after death, and it was found that her blad- 
der contained over a gallon of perfectly black water. The 
poor things appeared to suffer terribly, but could not be 
roused from a dull sort of stupor that seized them after 
the disease had fairly taken hold. The disease is not con- 
tagious or infectious, nor is it confined to Jersey cattle or 
to any sort of fine cattle. There are many common cows 
that have died of the same trouble. What is it, how 
should it be treated and how may it be prevented ? We 
greatly need a competent veterinary surgeon — an educated, 
experienced, skilful man. Such a person would do well 
here. A large amount of money has been invested in 
Jerseys in this county, and we are full of anxiety. The 
herds have all been doing well. J. L. H., 

Atlanta, Ga." 



ANSWER BY DR. EDWARD MOORE. 
" Haemo-albuminuria, black water, bloody urine, red- 
water, etc., are among the titles given to a disease of cat 
tie, characterized by the color of the urine, which, accord 



158 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [292] 

ing to the stage of the disease, is red, coffee-colored or 
black. It is loaded with albumen, and contains considera- 
ble coloring matter from the blood. It is non-contagious, 
but, owing to the fact that its immediate cause is to be 
found in the nature of the food which the animals receive, 
and inasmuch as oftentimes a large number are fed alike, 
consequently the majority are stricken down with this ter- 
rible disease. Those who do not understand it are apt to 
look upon it as contagious. Food containing flesh and 
fat-forming matters in small proportions, with excess of 
water, is the great factor in the commoner form of this 
disease, and unquestionably the case in the instance before 
us. It is a much rarer disease in this country than on the 
Continent or in Great Britain. It follows bad weather, 
and results from inferior pasturage — inferior both as to 
quantity and quality. The same may be said of roots ; 
that is, those poor in quality are known to be productive 
of this disease. The blood is thus robbed of its richness 
and purity, and in consequence some of its components, 
which are unfitted for the performance of their natural 
functions, are excreted in large quantities by the kidneys 
and with the urine gain exit from the body. The vital 
fluid (the blood) thus impoverished is not capable longer 
of keeping up the tone of the system, and various organs 
give way to disease ; and, depending upon the particular 
ones which sympathize, we notice peculiar symptoms. 
The liver, intestinal canal and kidneys are usually affected 
largely, often followed by brain sympathy. The heart is 
also very abnormal in action, owing to the changed con- 
dition of the blood. There is another form of this dis- 
ease, which sets in about a week or two after parturition* 
but it is not necessary to speak of that now. In the treat- 
ment we find that a knowledge of the cause is necessary 
in order to render either prevention or treatment rational. 
To prevent it should be the first aim, and this indicates a 
study of the condition of pastures, seasons and weather; 



[293] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 159 

land undrained, low and wet, rank, innutritious food and 
roots grown on rich, moist lands should be avoided, and 
the disease will disappear. Remedial measures for those 
affected are often unsatisfactory, for the reason that ani- 
mals become so anaemic and prostrated before they receive 
any treatment that it is of no avail Give them, in prefer- 
ence to quack nostrums and drugs, large quantities of 
blood or albumen in the shape of eggs beaten up with 
milk, giving also something to strengthen the system 
weakened by the causes enumerated. We can now sug- 
gest, with a hope of success, a line of treatment simple 
and complete : Give daily for several days from a pint to 
a quart of raw linseed oil, even if diarrhoea is present ; 
chlorate of potash, 3 dr., in water thrice daily ; chloride 
of sodium, 6 oz.; powdered capsicum, 1 dr.; powdered 
gentian, 1 oz.; and sulphate of quinia, 30 gr., twice daily. 
Without skilled treatment the fatality is very great." 

Col. Richard Peters, says : 

" My first experience with Red-water was in 1856 and 
1857. I had collected from all parts of the United States 
and from England a herd of 100 head of thoroughbred 
North Devon cattle, with a few of the Durham and Ayr- 
shire. My improved Devons from England cost nearly 
$500.00 per head. I had sent three of them to my farm 
in Gordon county, and retained three of them in Atlanta, 
keeping them stalled, or in the shade. They reached 
America in February or March. 

Those at the farm ran in the fields with the other cattle. 
Early the following August the Devon bull was attacked 
with Red- water. He was drenched with 1% lbs. of Glau- 
ber salts and some spirits of turpentine. In about three 
days he died — not then knowing he had the Red-water. 
About the last of August other cases appeared and at the 
same time my English cattle at Atlanta were taken. I 
used freely salts and spirits of turpentine on the entire 
herd, both at the farm and in Atlanta, giving a dose twice 



lt)0 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [294] 

a week. I sent to the farm an Irish cow-doctor, who had 
some reputation in Atlanta, with a collection of medicines 
which he said were used in the "ould" country, promising 
him $10.00 a head for every cow he saved. He used 
drenches and injections extensively, but all the cows under 
his treatment died. On his return I asked him why he 
was unable to save them. He replied, "They are differ- 
ent from the cows of the 'ould' country, they died too 
'quack' for me ;" meaning that the disease was more viru- 
lent than he had seen it in Ireland — the animals dying 
generally in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after 
they were taken. I lost all of my Durhams, part of my 
Ayrshires and about twenty-five head of Devons, in- 
cluding the six imported from England. Three of the 
latter died in Atlanta and three at the farm, five within 
the same week, though separated from each other at a 
distance of eighty miles, north and south — those in At- 
lanta in the shade on dry food, and those at the farm on 
pasture. 

The disease re-appeared at the farm the next season, 
but in a milder form. On its re-appearance the entire 
herd were drenched twice a week with salts and spirits of 
turpentine. I lost but few cases the second year, and 
from that date to the present time the disease has not 
been on the farm as an epidemic. 

During the years 1876 and 1877 I was engaged in large 
shipments of beef cattle to Edisto Island near Charleston, 
S. C. Without exception, all the cattle purchased during 
the summer from the mountains of Georgia became more 
or less affected with Red-water within ten or fifteen days 
after their arrival at the Island. About half of them died 
and the others required six or eight months to recuperate 
and get fat enough for market. 

The Durhams purchased in Middle Tennessee died of 
Red-water even more rapidly than the Georgia mountain 
cattle, while those purchased in Middle Georgia were sel- 



[295] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 161 

dom affected, and those from Florida appeared to be ex 
empt from the disease. 

During the war, at the time of the invasion of Ken- 
tucky by the Confederate forces, a large number of Dur- 
ham cattle were purchased and sent South for the use of 
the army. Several herds were pastured on my farm 
during July and August. I noticed one herd of over 200 
head in charge of a herdsman with whom I was acquainted. 
The cattle were all driven to the banks of the Etowah 
river, where they remained until after the battle of Chick- 
amauga. On my visit to the battle-field I saw the rem^j 
nant of the herd of 200 head referred to. It consisted of 
a small Georgia bull yearling and one Durham heifer. 
The man in charge told me they had all died of " murrain " 
between the Etowah river and Ringgold. I saw in a lot 
in which the drove had remained two or three days ten or 
fifteen of the dead cattle. 

"Cattle should not be moved in the cotton States be- 
tween the months of March and October, unless they are 
under six or eight months of age. 

"In July of this year (1880) a gentleman from Tampa, 
Fla., visited Kentucky and purchased a lot of very hand- 
some Durhams, old and young, together with some very 
fine Cotswold sheep. I cautioned him as he passed 
through Atlanta to keep them out of the sun. I heard 
from him a few days since (September 3rd) and he had 
lost all of his Durhams except the calves, and the Cots- 
wold sheep were doing badly and would, he thought, die 
before winter. The lot must have cost him not less than 
$1,500.00. 

" My experience has taught me that the Durhams are 
more liable to this disease than any other breed, probably 
on account of their size and plethoric habits, the Devons 
next, then the Ayrshires. The Channel Island cattle 
seem to be about equally with the natives subject to Red- 
water. 
11 



162 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [296] 

The great secret in doctoring cattle affected by Red- 
water is in taking the disease in its incipiency. A herd of 
improved cattle should be closely watched when there is 
danger of the disease in the neighborhood, or where any 
have been recently brought from abroad. It occurs gen- 
erally between the middle of June and the last of Sep- 
tember. The first symptoms in milch cows is immediate 
cessation of milk secretion. In twelve hours the cows 
will be entirely dry. With others than cows in milk, the 
first symptoms are refusal to eat, standing apart from the 
rest of the herd, and, when driven, lagging behind. If 
offered fresh water they will usually urinate and then the 
color of the water can be observed. Every animal at- 
tacked should be immediately drenched to bring about an 
action of the bowels, using i% lbs. of Epsom salts for a 
grown animal and a pint of castor oil in extreme cases, 
adding two or three drops of croton oil. The doses should 
be repeated every six hours until the object is accom- 
plished. Drenches of flax-seed tea should also be given 
in quart doses. Mr. J. B. Wade, of DeKalb county has 
been very successful in the use of quart doses of melted 
lard with flax-seed tea. As soon as the animal is relieved 
it usually recuperates rapidly and is liable to a second 
attack only in exceptional cases." 

The evidence derived from the above reports estab- 
lishes nothing as to the cause of Red-water other than the 
fact that it usually accompanies acclimation. It discredits 
the hitherto general belief on the part of veterinarians 
that low, rank pastures produce it. The necessity of 
prompt purging is clearly shown by the experience of all 
the gentlemen whose herds have been affected. 

HOOVE. 

This disease is caused by the fermentation of green veg- 
eatble food in the rumen of cattle. It usually occurs 
when cattle are taken from a poor pasture to one contain. 



[297] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 163 

ing luxuriant vegetation, such as succulent grass, field 
peas, etc. The hungry animals eat too much and so over 
load the rumen that it ceases to circulate the food, and a 
rapid fermentation takes place which generates a volume 
of gass, which in its effort to escape causes serious un- 
easiness and often intense suffering in the animal affected. 

Youatt mentions the following symptoms of Hoove, viz: 
''The animal gradually becomes oppressed and distressed. 
It ceases to eat; it does not ruminate; it scarcely moves, but 
stands with its head extended, breathing heavily and 
moaning. The whole belly is blown up ; this is particu- 
larly evident at the flanks, and most of all at the left 
flank, under which the posterior division of the rumen 
lies. The rumen in cattle is scantily supplied with either 
blood-vessels or nerves, and therefore the brain is seldom 
much affected in an early stage of Hoove. Swelling, un- 
willingness to move, and laborious breathing, are the first 
and distinguishing symptoms." In proportion as the rumen 
is distended by the gas the possibility of its escape is les- 
sened, and the difficulty of administering medicine increas- 
ed since the entrance to the rumen is closed by the disten- 
tion of the latter. The unnatural size of the stomach 
causes it to press upon other vital organs, producing la- 
bored breathing, interrupting the circulation of the blood 
and finally causing inflammation which extends to the brain. 
Unless speedily relieved death must ensue. In simple 
cases the gas may be extricated by causing the animal to 
move rapidly, and by the concussion occasioned by the 
jolting of the contents of the stomach, open the entrance 
to the rumen and allow the escape of the accumulated gas. 
Alkalies or oils are also efficacious in the early stages of 
the disease, before the entrance to the rumen has been 
close against their admission by too great distension. In 
severe cases, either the probang, stomach pump, knife or 
trochar, must be used. 

The probang, which consists of a flexible tube termi- 



161 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [298] 

nated by a rounded and perforated solid, may be passed 
down the throat of the animal and the rounded extremity 
forced through the cesophagean canal by means of a stilett 
within the tube, the stilett withdrawn and the gas allowed 
to pass out. As soon as the belly falls, and but little gas 
escapes, the tube should be withdrawn. If the animal 
swells again, the probang may be re-introduced. This ne- 
cssity may often arise as the probang simply removes the 
gas already generated and does not remove the cause. 
The tube should not remain in the gullet long at a time. 
The stomach-pump is superior to the probang, since by 
its use the gas may not only be removed, but medicines 
injected to remove the producing cause of the disease. 

While the knife inserted into the rumen above the flank 
effectually removes the gas there is danger of portions of 
the contents of the rumen falling into the cavity of the 
abdomen and proving a source of irritation, inflammation 
and finally of death. To prevent this, the trochar, which 
consists of a stilett encased in a triangular silver tube, is 
substituted for the knife, the stilett is withdrawn from 
the wound, leaving the silver tube in the wound. This 
penetrates several inches into the rumen and out through 
the skin and effectually prevents the escape of the con. 
tents of the rumen into the cavity of the abdomen, while 
it allows the free and continuous escape of the gas. 

Youatt describes the point at which the knife or trochar 
should be inserted as follows : "Suppose a line be drawn 
close along the vertebrae, from the haunch-bone to the 
last rib, and two other lines of equal length to extend 
down the flank, so as to form an equilateral triangle ; the 
apex of the triangle, or the point where these lines meet ; 
would be the proper place for the operation, for there is 
no danger of wounding either the spleen or the kidney." 
After the animal is relieved the following treatment is 
suggested by Mr. Youatt: "A pound of epsom salts 
should be administered with an ounce of carraway powder, 



[299] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 165 

and half an ounce of ginger ; and on several successive 
mornings, four ounces of Epsom salts, two of powdered 
gentian, and half an ounce of ginger should be given," to 
restore as speedily as possible healthy action of the rumen. 
If an animal is gorged with grain, soda and Epsom salts 
should be promptly administered. 

PUERPERAL, FEVER. 

This disease may generally be prevented by proper at- 
tention to the cows just before, during and immediately 
after calving. 

Before calving, and as maturity approaches, if the cow 
or heifer is not on grass, she should have laxative diet, 
such as bran mash, but no heating food, such as corn meal, 
cotton seed meal, etc. If her condition is already very 
high, she should be kept on lean pasture for some weeks 
before calving. It is generally cows in high condition 
and deep milkers that are affected with milk fever. 

The udder should be carefully watched for some days 
before the time for calving when there is a rapid secretion 
of milk taking place, and prompt measures adopted to 
prevent hardening or caking of the udder. If the milk 
will flow, a portion of it should be drawn each day to re- 
lieve the distention and prevent inflammation. If, as is 
sometimes the case, the milk cannot be drawn, the udder 
and teats should be thoroughly rubbed with arnica and 
hog's lard, mixed in equal quantities, using the hand for 
rubbing, as the warmth of the hand will assist the absorb- 
tion of the ointment. If these precautions are used, the 
cow carefully fed on warm, laxitive mashes for several days 
after calving, and kept from cold rains and winds, cases of 
puerperal fever will be very rare. If, however, a case does 
occur, prompt attention is demanded. It usually occurs 
the second or third day after calving, when there is a rapid 
determination of blood to the udder to supply the milk 
secretions. If such secretion is then interrupted by cold 



166 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [300] 

or an inflamed condition of the udder, the whole system 
becomes deranged, and what is known as puerperal or 
milk fever ensues. Allen gives the following 

Symptoms — " The disease is first perceived by the ani- 
mal refraining from food, and looking dull and heavy. A 
cold, shivering fit comes on, accompanied with so much 
debility that the beast commonly drops, and is unable to 
rise until she obtains some relief from medicine. The an- 
imal becomes very restless, and appears to experience 
great pain in the body, as she often looks towards the 
flanks and kicks with her feet, and seems very much dis- 
tressed. The head, as the disease proceeds, is in general 
so severely affected, that the cow loses her senses, and will 
knock and bruise her head against anything, and do her- 
self much injury, if great care is not taken. The pulse is 
quick, being about 70 in a minute, and the tongue parch- 
ing dry. The bowels are costive, and there is no secretion 
of milk. . . . As the disease advances, the belly becomes 
enlarged ; if purging medicines lessen the swelling in the 
body it is a good sign ; but if they are made use of, and 
the belly still increases in size, there are little hopes of her 
recovery. 

"A purging drink should always be administered as 
early as possible. The following is highly recommended 
by some practitioners : 

Nitre 2 ounces 

Ginger, powdered 1 ounce 

Epsom salts .1 pound 

Anise seed, powdered 1 ounce 

Treacle 4 ounc s 

" Pour three pints of boiling water upon the ingredients, 
and let them be given when new milk warm." 

Epsom salts alone or lard will answer if the other ingre- 
dients are not at hand — dose, one pound to one and one- 
half pounds of the salts, or one quart of melted lard, 
to be repeated in half these quantities, if no action is se- 



[301] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 167 

cured in eight or ten hours. If the medicine does not act 
freely, clysters may be used to advantage. As soon as 
the bowels are opened and the fever reduced, an effort 
should be made to restore the tone of the system. The 
following is recommended by Allen in his work on 
""American Cattle :" 

Salt of tartar . * . . £ ounce. 

Oil of turpentine 1 ounce. 

Ginger, powdered . . . .' ■ '. J ounce. 

Flour of mustard 2 ounces. 

Grains of Paradise, powdered . . £ ounce. 
Treacle ....... 4 tablespoonfuls. 

Caraway seed, powdered .. . .2 ounces. 

Anise seed, powdered , . . .2 ounces. 

Mixed and given in a quart of warm gruel, to which 
may be added a wine-glass of gin or brandy. 

" This drink will tend to invigorate the system and pro- 
mote the secretion of milk. It may be repeated once a 
day, or every other day, for three or four times. Should 
the bowels be inclined to be bound any time during the 
complaint, recourse to a purging drink should be had im- 
mediately. Cows afflicted with the milk fever should be 
taken great care of, and be well nursed. It is requisite 
that the stall where they lie should be well littered.; and 
it is frequently necessary that, when they are cold and 
shivering, they should be covered with a blanket or some 
other warm clothing. To assist in subduing the inflam- 
mation of the udder, it should be rubbed two or three 
times a day, about half an hour each time, with soft soap, 
or pipe-clay and cold spring-water. 

" To solicit the flow of milk, the paps should be drawn 
occasionally; it is a good sign when the milk begins to be 
secreted. As they are frequently unable to take a suffi- 
cient quantity to support themselves, it becomes necessary 
to horn some nutritious food into them. Good gruel is 
well adapted for this purpose, and two or three quarts 
should be given three or four times a day. Linseed por- 



168 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [302] 

ridge, sweetened with treacle, is also proper to be given at 
this time. The beast must be constantly attended to 
when the head is much affected, otherwise she may do 
herself some serious injury." Water-cure has been satis- 
factorily used in this and all other inflammatory diseases 
of cattle. 

CHOKING^ 

Cows are liable to be choked by attempting to swallow 
ears of corn, potatoes, etc. When this occurs, resort must 
be had to the probang to force the obstruction forward 
into the stomach. If a regular probang is not at hand, a 
temporary one may be constructed of a piece of grape- 
vine or rattan, about five feet in length, wrapped at the 
ends with thread, and covered with a disc of soft leather. 
This, well greased, may answer as a substitute for a pro- 
bang in cases of emergency. 

GARGET, OR SWELLING OF THE UDDER, 

This disease, like puerperal fever, is generally the result 
either of neglect or bad management. It usually attacks 
deep milkers or heifers with the first calf. Cows in high 
condition are more subject to this disorder than those ia 
a lean or moderately good condition. If the bag fills to 
such an extent before calving as to risk inflammation, a 
portion of the milk should be drawn daily to relieve the 
distension. If this is not done, the milk, remaining in the 
udder so long, will coagulate and produce inflammation in 
a portion or all of the udder, and caking of the udder 
results. If such symptoms are observed after the birth of 
the calf, it should be induced to suck the teat of the affected 
part before too great inflammation and hardening occurs. 
If not relieved in its early stages, the udder should be 
thoroughly rubbed several times daily with melted lard 
and arnica mixed in equal quantities. This well rubbed 
in with the hand, will generally give relief. If much fever 



[303] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 169 

prevails in the udder, an India-rubber sack, large enough to 
cover the udder, should be tied over it, and kept filled 
with soft water of about 6o° or 65 F. The water should 
be frequently renewed. 

WOUNDS, SPRAINS AND BRUISES 

Are best treated with cold water, keeping the injured 
parts bound with cloths, which are kept saturated with 
cold water. This keeps down local fever, and allows a 
healthy action in the parts affected, thus insuring speedy 
recovery. Even refractory animals soon become manage 
able under this treatment, so great is the relief afforded. 

LOSS OF CUD 

Is not a disease but a symptom or consequence of dis- 
ease. It results from either debility or some inflammatory 
disease. The remedy should be applied to the disease of 
which the " loss of cud" is the symptom. The character 
of the cause must first be determined by a careful exam- 
ination of the animal before attempting a remedy. It 
generally results from some derangement of the digestive 
organs. 

LICE AND TICKS. 
Cattle in low condition are often seriously injured by 
these parasites — by the former in winter and spring, the 
latter in early summer. Lard and Scotch snuff, or Cayenne 
pepper well rubbed over the hide, will destroy them. Lard 
or oil of any kind used alone will also prove effectual. 
Mercurial ointments and sulphur should not be used on 
account of their danger to the animals themselves. Kero- 
sene oil rubbed on the hides of the affected ani nals will 
prove effectual for the removal of either lice or ticks. 

ABORTION 

Has never been troublesome in Southern herds though 
quite troublesome in some localities at the North. As a 
cow that has once aborted is likely to repeat the accident, 



170 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [304] 

she should be either fattened for the butcher or removed 
from the rest of the herd, to avoid all sympathetic influ- 
ence on others. 

"HORN AIL" OR "HOLLOW HORN" 

Is a symptom of some derangement of the system, and 
not a disease. Boring the horn and pouring into it all 
sorts of villainous compounds only increase the suffering 
of the animal without striking at the cause of the trouble. 

POISONING. 

Cattle are sometimes poisoned in early spring by 
eating plants, such as ivy and wild parsnip, water 
hemlock, etc. The symptoms "are principally sudden 
swelling, with a peculiar stupor, in the early stages 
of the attack ; cessation of rumination ; a change in the 
quality of the milk, which becomes thin and serous, and 
presently ceases to be secreted ; the refusal of all the solid 
food and eagerness after water ; quickening of the pulse, 
which yet becomes small, and, in some cases, scarcely to 
be felt ; and the animal frequently grinds the teeth, and 
paws, and rolls as if it felt severe colic pains. In a few 
instances the stupor passes over and a degree of excite- 
ment and blind fury succeeds, which has been mistaken for 
madness — Youatt" These vegetable poisons cannot be 
neutralized by medicines ; the only remedies are to be 
found in the use of the stomach-pump and active purga- 
tives. Give a quart of melted lard or one and half pounds 
of Epsom salts, and repeat the doses if no action is had in 
from four to six hours. With the pump repeatedly inject 
and withdraw warm water, and finally fill the rumen with 
warm water. If poisoned by the use of corrosive sublimate 
give the whites of several eggs beaten with thick gruel, 
repeating it every hour. 



[305] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 171 



CHAPTER VI. 

GRASSES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS ADAPTED TO 

GEORGIA. 

As success in rearing cattle depends upon the abundance 
and quality of food suited to their consumption, available 
to the breeder, " A Manual on Cattle" would not be com- 
plete unless it conveyed some information as to the most 
economical and profitable means of supplying the food 
necessary for securing the best results in rearing them. 
Since cattle-breeding has hitherto received but little 
attention in Georgia, but little thought has been given to 
the production of forage, more than to supply food for 
horses and mules used in the cultivation of the farms. In 
the larger part of the State, neither summer pasturage nor 
winter forage is supplied artificially, except to work oxen 
and milch cows. 

Now that the stock of cattle in the State is being rapidly 
improved by the introduction of thoroughbreds which are 
either bred pure or used to " grade up" the " natives," the 
farmers of the State, recognizing the fact that to secure 
and maintain improvement, good pastures or abundant 
forage for soil-feeding are necessary, are turning their 
attention, more than ever before, to the subject of forage 
production. 

The object of this chapter, therefore, will be to supply, 
to those who desire to improve their stock, the needed 
information in a concise and condensed form. A general 
discussion of forage plants will not be undertaken, but the 
attention of the reader will be invited to a practical dis- 
cussion of those plants which may be profitably cultivated 
within the borders of this State. Technical names will be 
avoided as far as practicable. 



172 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [306] 

The grasses which have been and may be profitably 
cultivated in Georgia are orchard grass, herds grass or red 
top, tall meadow oat grass, Italian rye grass, blue grass, 
timothy, Bermuda grass, crab grass and wild rye or Terrell 
grass. To these may be added (since they are true grasses) 
rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, and the millets. 

Among the leguminous or pod-bearing plants may be 
mentioned red clover, white clover, lucerne, spotted 
medick, common vetch and the cow-pea. 

ORCHARD GRASS, 

Is the most reliable of the cultivated grasses for Middle 
and North Georgia. It affords abundant pasturage in the 
late fall and early spring ; or, if not grazed during the falL 
affords good pasturage during the winter months. It 
grows in tussocks, and hence is not suited for lawns, where 
a smooth, even surface is desired. In order to secure a 
" full stand " very heavy seeding is necessary. The seed 
is light and chaffy, and hence not less than two bushels 
should be sown to the acre. The best results are obtained 
by sowing on well-prepared land in September. Like 
most other grasses, it succeeds best on stiff lands, failing 
on those below the grade of sandy loam. Orchard grass 
is valued more for grazing than as a hay grass. If, how- 
ever, it is cut when in bloom, it makes very good hay — if 
not cut till the seed are formed it becomes woody and al- 
most valueless for hay. 

Unless saving pure seed is the object it should never 
be sown alone, but mixed with other grasses, as hereafter 
directed. 

When cut for seed the stems above the undermath 
should be cut, and then the balance, which will embrace 
the bulk of the crop, may be cut and cured for hay. 

Orchard grass grows very well on land partially shaded 
by trees. Many of our woodlands may be converted into 
valuable pastures by cutting out the undergrowth, thinning 



[307] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 173 

the larger trees, preparing the land and sowing orchard 
grass. Orchard grass, being perennial, affords many suc- 
cessive crops from one seeding if not overrun by weeds 
and other grasses, and annually top-dressed to compensate 
for the removal of annual crops in hay or pasturage. 

TALL MEADOW OAT GRASS. 

This is a valuable grass, very similar in its habits of 
growth to orchard grass, more valuable for hay, will grow 
better on sandy lands, but requires greater fertility. It 
ripens very nearly with the orchard grass, and has the pe- 
culiarity of ripening seed while the straw is yet green. In 
consequence of this habit the undermath makes excellent 
hay after the seed are saved. In many respects this is su- 
perior to orchard grass, but requires richer soil. Just here 
it is proper to remark that no grass need be expected to 
succeed well on very poor soil. The meadow oat grass is 
perennial, and hence, other things being equal, more val- 
uable than annual grasses. 

It should be sown in August or September, at the rate 
of two bushels per acre. 

Neither orchard nor meadow oat grass should be pas- 
tured during the summer, their chief value consisting in 
the winter pasturage which they afford. Ripening at the 
same time, they may be sown together, to give variety to 
the hay as well as to the pasturage. If sown together one 
bushel of each should be used. 

BLUE GRASS 

Is more valuable in Georgia as a lawn grass than for stock. 
In the northern part of the State, however, especially on 
lands abounding in lime, either naturally or artificially 
supplied, blue grass will afford a valuable addition to per- 
manent pastures, on which, however, if heavily grazed, it 
will eventually root out other grasses. 

Since it is stoloniferous, spreading from the root under- 



174: A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [308] 

ground, the trampling of stock and close grazing seem to 
facilitate its spreading and enable it the better to resist 
our climate. It is not valued as a hay-producer, but, like 
orchard and meadow oat grass, affords superior winter 
pasturage if not grazed in the fall. Stock are perhaps 
more fond of it than of any other perennial grass except 
Bermuda. It will not live through our summers on sandy 
soils unless partially shaded and supplied with an abund- 
ance of moisture. 

When sown with other grasses it is scarcely perceptible 
until the second year. If sown alone, on rich and well- 
prepared soil, free from weed and grass seed, it makes a 
sod the first year. 

HERDS GRASS, OR RED-TOP, 

Is particularly adapted to moist soils, and will grow even 
on pipe-clay land, where nothing else useful will grow. It 
is perennial, makes good hay and affords very good pas- 
turage in early spring. It grows on uplands, but succeeds 
best on lands too moist for orchard or meadow oat grass 
it should be sown in September on bottom lands. It 
ripens later than orchard and meadow oat grass, but is 
sufficiently advanced when they are in condition to cut 
to make good hay, and hence may, to some extent, be 
mixed with them. It does better, however, mixed with 

TIMOTHY. 

which gives satisfactory results only on drained bottom 
land. This is recommended only for hay, for which it is 
admirably adapted. It makes very little aftermath, and 
hence affords poor fall grazing. Having tuberous roots, 
it is injured by grazing. It will succeed only in the north- 
ern part of the State, in mountain coves, and on creek and 
river bottoms. It will not answer for general cultivation 
in the State. 



[309] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 175 

GUINEA GRA$S 

Has been cultivated successfully by some farmers for hay. 
Its root is perennial, but the top is killed by the first se- 
vere frost. It has a fleshy cane root, which propagates 
rapidly under ground under favorable circumstances, and 
which is exterminated with great difficulty — the principal 
objection to the plant. 

It should be sown only on land intended to be perma- 
nently devoted to grass, on account of the difficulty of 
exterminating it when once well set. On rich land it af- 
fords several cuttings of hay of medium quality. 

It should be cut when about three feet high and before 
it blooms. If left standing as long as is usual with other 
grasses it becomes too hard and woody to make good hay, 

BERMUDA GRASS 

Is the only perennial grass which can be relied upon for 
summer pasturage. Those already mentioned are pe- 
culiarly adapted to furnishing winter pasturage, but to do 
this they must not be grazed in summer. 

The Bermuda affords summer pasturage unsurpassed in 
richness and reliability, and none is more relished by stock 
of every description. It affords an impenetrable sod, 
which completely protects the soil from washing and in- 
jury by the trampling of stock, while, in common with 
other perennial grasses, it makes annual contributions of 
humus to the soil, and gradually improves its fertility. It 
can be relied upon to produce hay only on bottom land, or 
on land supplied with moisture throughout the summer. 
On such lands it yields an immense quantity of hay of 
very superior quality. On uplands it does not attain suffi- 
cient height to be cut for hay. 

Bermuda grass propagates by root under ground and by 
surface runners, which take root at every joint. It bears no 
seed, and hence is easily confined within any desired limits^ 



176 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [310] 

if reasonable precaution is used by the proprietor of the 
lands to prevent scattering the root by means of the plow, 
washing rains or creeks. 

It can be readily and rapidly propagated by burying 
portions of the root as follows : Prepare the soil as for 
corn, lay off rows three feet apart with a small plow, which 
will not render the surface of the soil very uneven, drop 
pieces of the root a few inches long every two feet in the 
drill, cover with the foot and tread on it to bring the earth 
in closer contact with the root and thus facilitate its 
growth. This should be done in early spring — say at the 
time of planting corn. The runners will rapidly spread 
over the space between the rows, taking root as they ad- 
vance, so that on good land there will be a good sod by 
the second year. The land should be rolled after planting. 

Bermuda is eminently the summer grass of the South, 
and will prove a blessing to Southern agriculture when the 
prejudices which now prevail against it shall have been 
overcome and it shall take the place in our system which 
it is, beyond question, destined to fill. 

SPOTTED MEDICK, 

Sometimes called burr clover, though it is not, strictly 
speaking, a clover at all, sown on Bermuda sod, grows 
while the Bermuda is dormant, and affords winter and 
spring pasturage, thus supplementing the Bermuda and 
affording perennial pasturage. It gets its name from the 
form of its seed pods, which resemble small burs. These 
burrs are formed by the spiral coil of the seed-pod. 

The seed should be sown in August or September, on 
and prepared for their reception, if intended to be grown 
alone or on Bermuda sod, early in August. Those who 
have grown medick on Bermuda sod have been highly 
pleased with the results. 



[311] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 17T 

VETCH. 

There is a variety of winter-growing vetch which grows 
during winter and spring on Bermuda sod, as does the 
spotted medick. They both have slender stems, which 
trail upon the ground if not supported by other vegeta- 
tion, both make a quantity of seed, and both spring up> 
spontaneously year after year where the seed matures and 
falls. The pods of the vetch turn black as they mature,. 
and as soon as ripe burst and scatter the seed. It is hence- 
very difficult to save the seed of this plant. 

The burrs of the medick fall upon the ground when the 
plant matures, early in June, and may be raked up in* 
quantities. This burr is troublesome on account of adher- 
ing to the wool of sheep when they lie upon the ground 
where it has fallen. 

Both of these plants are annuals, but have the merit of 
propagating themselves spontaneously after they have been 
once started. They do not interfere with cultivated crops, 
and are easily exterminated. Their principal value arises 
from the facts that they grow on the Bermuda sod during 
winter and spring, and re-seed themselves. 

ITALIAN RYE GRASS, 

Affords excellent winter pasturage, but, being an annual, 
will not be cultivated so long as we have such perennials 
as orchard and meadow oat grass. 

CRAB GRASS, 

Next to the Bermuda, is our best reliance for summer 
pasturage and produces a large quantity of hay when har- 
vested at the proper stage of maturity — when in bloom. 
Heavy crops of hay may be made on good land by pre- 
paring thoroughly in May, killing all growth then on the 
soil and allowing the crab-grass to take entire possession. 
There is generally seed enough already on soil that was 
12 



178 - A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [312] 

cultivated the year before, to secure a full stand. Stock 
of all kinds are very fond of well-cured crab-grass hay. If 
seasons are favorable fine crops of this hay may often be 
saved from land from which small grain has been har- 
vested. The principal value of crab-grass, however, arises 
from the summer pasturage it affords, being a spontane- 
ous growth and costing nothing. The hay from this grass 
is difficult to cure and analysis shows it to be little supe- 
rior to oatstraw. 

OTHER GRASSES. 

Besides the foregoing, which are generally recognized 
as grasses, there are other true grasses which are usually 
cultivated for their seed and hence are ordinarily classed 
in accordance with the use made of them, but which are, 
nevertheless, valuable for the purposes for which the fore- 
going are commonly cultivated. Among these are rye, 
barley, oats, Indian corn and the millets. 

BARLEY 

Has been sown on Southern plantations for winter 
grazing on a small scale for more than half a century and 
is esteemed highly for that purpose by all who have used 
it. It should be sown on very rich soil in August at the 
rate of not less than three bushels per acre — more will be 
better. Thus sown it affords good pasturage from the 
time the summer grasses begin to fail until Spring. A 
more economical method of using it, however, is by cut- 
ting it daily and feeding it on the soiling plan to the 
stock. Fed in this way a given area will supply four 
times as many stock as can be pastured upon it, besides 
avoiding injury to the land by trampling while wet. 
Besides, there are very few days during our winters in 
which the barley may not be cut and fed to the stock, 
while there are sometimes weeks at a time when the soil 



[313] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 179 

is not in a suitable condition for pasturing. There is 
no waste in cutting, while much of the barley is either 
pulled up, soiled by the excrement of the animals, or de- 
stroyed by their hoofs in grazing. It is but little more 
trouble to cut and feed the barley than to turn the stock 
to and from the pasture. 

RYE 

May be treated in the same way as barley, and does not 
require such fertile soil to make a profitable crop. The 
two may be mixed to give variety, and sown if intended 
for soiling, in drills a foot or fifteen inches apart, at the 
rate of two bushels of barley and one of rye to the 
acre. Sown thick, the stalks are forced to grow up 
straight, and consequently cutting may be commenced as 
early in the fall as it is needed. If intended for grazing, 
the same quantity may be sown broadcast. 

No other grass or combination of grasses will supply so 
much green food of such good quality as barley and rye 
mixed. Where orchard grass and meadow oat grass 
will grow, however, every farm should have a liberal area 
devoted to them. 

With the facilities offerred by the soil and climate of 
Georgia for supplying green food throughout the winter, 
it is surprising that more attention has not been given 
to winter dairying. As before remarked, there is no ex- 
cuse for white, or otherwise inferior butter anywhere in 
Georgia, at any season of the year. If the people of 
Georgia will fully avail themselves of their natural ad- 
vantages of soil and climate, no prophetic vision is nec- 
essary to discover happiness and prosperity in the near 
future. 

GATS 

While not especially adapted to winter pasturage may 
be made, to an important extent, supplementary to 



180 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [314] 

other more valuable winter grasses; but whether cut 
when in bloom to make hay, or allowed to ripen for the 
grain, furnish perhaps the cheapest forage crop for the 
middle and southern parts of the State. 

INDIAN CORN 
Sown broadcast on very fertile soil or planted very 
thich in drills at the rate of from four to six bushels 
per acre will yield, perhaps, more forage per acre than 
any other plant adapted to the South, the only obsta- 
cle to its culture lying in the difficulty of properly 
curing the forage when cut green. It should, like other 
grasses saved for hay, be cut when in full bloom. It 
is excellent whether cut for soiling purposes or cured 
for winter forage. If cut the first time before the joints 
are formed it will put out and make a fine second crop. 
The blades which are harvested at the first cutting 
would, if not so harvested, be of little value if allowed 
to remain, as is usually done, until the plant blooms, as 
they usually die from the influence of the shade before 
the crop is gathered. 

GERMAN MILLET. 

If sown very thickly on fertile soil so as to reduce the 
size of the stalks, and cut when in bloom before the 
stems have become hard and woody, makes a large quan- 
tity of hay of rather inferior quality. Being of very 
rapid growth it is an exhausting crop, and hence has not 
met with very great favor with the farmers of Georgia. 

HUNGARIAN MILLET 
Being smaller in growth than the German, and making, 
in as short time, answers the purpose of an annual hay 
plant better than the latter, and makes in consequence of 
the smaller stem a better quality of hay. Neither, how- 
ever, has met with much favor with those who have tried 
them. 



[315] A MANUAL ON CATTLE, 181 

CAT TAIL MILLET, 

Recently named by Peter Henderson, " Pearl Millet," 
has been planted for half a century in small patches 
for the purpose of feeding green to mules and milch 
cows, during the summer. It is very valuable for 
this purpose, affording repeated cuttings of succulent 
food, which is relished by stock moderately well, but not 
so much as green corn, clover or lucerne. It should be 
sown in drills, on fertile soil, and cultivated. It supplies 
an immense amount of green forage, in good seasons, may 
be cut half a dozen times, and supplements pastures in 
dry weather better than any other plant, because of the 
repeated cuttings that can be made from it during the 
summer. It should be cut before it joints, to ensure a 
prompt renewal of the growth. The principal value of 
this plant is for soiling purposes. While it may be saved 
for winter feeding it cures with difficulty, and makes 
rather inferior forage. The only circumstances under 
which it should be cured for hay are when the supply is 
greater than the immediate demand. In good seasons 
when other forage is abundant, and the growth of the 
millet very rapid, this will sometimes happen, as it is 
necessary to keep it cut down before it joints, if repeated 
succulent crops are expected. Whether needed, therefore, 
for immediate use or not, the whole patch, except that 
reserved for seed, should be cut over every few weeks, to 
keep up a succession of succulent crops. The plant is 
very small and tender when it first germinates, and hence 
the seed should not be planted until the soil is warm, in 
spring — about the time of planting cotton. 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS-RED CLOVER. 

The cultivation of red clover need not be attempted in 
Georgia, except on soils containing a large per cent, of 
clay, and those of a fair degree of fertility. It is very 
justly highly prized in climates better adapted to its 



182 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [316 

growth than ours as a soil improver, but in Georgia does 
not compare with the field pea (bean), for this purpose. 
In our climate, red clover may be sown in September or 
March, if sown alone or with grass seed, but if sown with 
small grain it should be sown in September. Even if 
sown alone September is the better time, that it may- 
acquire sufficient root to withstand our mild winter, but 
more especially that it may acquire sufficient root by 
summer to pass uninjured through the droughts, which 
usually occur in July or August. In the Northern and 
Middle States, clover seed are generally sown in early 
spring, to avoid being winter killed ; here we must guard 
more against summer killing, and hence sow in the fall 
for the reasons stated above. The soil should of thor- 
oughly prepared before sowing the seed, which should not 
be covered exceeding half an inch in depth. If sown just 
before a rain on freshly prepared soil they need not be 
covered at all. Where sown with small grain the return 
for the labor of preparing the soil, and the fertilizers used, 
is in the crop of small grain harvested, no hay crop is 
gathered till the second. If sown alone, two crops of hay 
are gathered the first year,, which will usually equal the 
value of the small grain crop gathered, when sown 
together. The objection to sowing with small grain in 
our climate is that the clover is dwarfed by the occupancy 
of the soil by the grain, until the latter is harvested, when 
the tender plants are suddenly exposed to the heat of 
the sun, to which, if drought ensues, they usually succumb. 
All experience in Georgia is in favor of sowing clover and 
the grasses without small grain, as the surest means of 
securing a stand. 

Red clover, however, should never be sown alone, 
unless seed are to be saved from the aftermath, and 
even if this is expected, the grasses will not materially 
interfere with it, since they will not mature seed in the 
aftermath. 



[£17] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 183 

Orchard grass and meadow oat grass mature with red 
clover, and hence are ready for the hay harvest at the 
same time. One or both of these grasses should be mixed 
with clover — they interfere with each other very little, 
require to a large extent different elements of plant food,, 
and present a variety of diet to the stock in the hay. 

The second crop of clover, which salivates horses, has 
no such injurious effect upon cattle either in its green 
state or when cured as hay. 

Red clover is a biennial plant, but re-seeds itself very 
well in our climate. The seed will lie in the ground many 
years and then germinate, when brought sufficiently near 
the surface. 

If sown alone, twelve pounds of pure seed will give a 
good stand on an acre. This is more than is usually sown, 
but the additional cost is well repaid in the greater cer- 
tainty of securing a stand. 

WHITE CLOVER 

Is never sown alone, but when mixed with the grasses, 
such as orchard, meadow oat grass, herds grass, or tim. 
othy, it makes a valuable undermath, though being peren- 
nial, like blue grass, it is disposed to crowd out its neigh- 
bors. It does not grow tall enough to be valuable for hay 
when planted alone, but in connection with red clover and 
the grasses adds much to the pasturage. 

LUCERNE 

Is exceedingly valuable, either for hay or for green soil- 
ing, on account of the early and repeated cuttings it af- 
fords, and for its superior nutritious qualities. It should 
never be grazed for the reason that the continued close 
biting of stock destroys the plants. It should be sown 
alone in drills sufficiently wide to admit the plow — fifteen 
or eighteen inches apart. Lucerne is very tender when 
young, and is easily overrun by weeds and grass. It is 



181 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [318] 

hence important to have the soil to be planted as free as 
possible of the seeds of weeds and grass, and very thor- 
oughly prepared by repeated plowing and harrowing. 

It should be planted early in September, after the sum 
mer weeds and grasses have ceased to germinate, and yet 
early enough for the lucerne to take good hold on the 
ground before winter. If planted thus early on fertile 
soil, it will be sufficiently advanced before ordinary spring 
vegetation starts to admit of thorough working. This 
working is necessary to protect it from being overgrown 
by wild vegetation, and hence all attempts at broadcast 
sowing have proved failures. It needs annual cultivation 
and manuring, but amply repays, by its large yield of most 
nutritious green food or hay, those who will give it the 
attention necessary to success in its cultivation. It needs 
to be cut, whether to be fed green or cured for hay, when 
the first blooms appear. If left till in full bloom, the 
stems become hard and woody. It may be cut as often 
as six times in very favorable seasons, and seldom less 
than three times in the most unfavorable seasons. 

After a stand is once secured, if properly cultivated and 
manured, it will afford a number of cuttings annually for 
more than a quarter of a century. It sends its tap-root so 
deeply into the soil that it is affected less by drouth than 
most of our cultivated plants. It has been known to de- 
scend eight feet vertically into the sub-soil. Satisfactory 
results in the cultivation of lucerne may not be expected 
on poor or poorly prepared soil. It will succeed well in 
any part of Georgia with proper preparation of the soil, 
and annual manuring and cultivation. Every farm should 
have a few acres of it. 

MIXED GSASSES AND LEGUMES. 
As before remarked, unless saving pure seed is the ob- 
ject of cultivation, none of the grasses or legumes, except 
lucerne, should be sown alone either for pasture or for 



[319] A MANUAL ON CATTLE. 185 

hay. Stock of all kinds prefer a variety of food, and will 
consume more and thrive better if supplied with a variety 
than if fed on a single article, however nutritious. 

For pasturage or hay, the following mixture is recom- 
mended on uplands : 

Orchard grass per acre, 1 bushel 

Tall Meadow oat grass " 1 , " 

Red Clover " 8 lbs. 

White Clover " - .... 3 " 

If the meadow oat grass-seed cannot be obtained, sow 
two bushels of orchard grass. 

If a permanent pasture or lawn is desired, sow in ad- 
dition to the above, one bushel of blue-grass seed. 

On bottom lands sow of 

Herd's grass, per acre, J bushel 

Timothy 12 lb«. 

White Clover 3 *' 

If practicable, sow all the grasses and legumes in Sep- 
tember without small grain. 

Neither the grasses nor legumes should be grazed the 
spring after they are sown. Cut for hay once the first 
year and allow the aftermath to grow till late fall, when 
stock may be turned on. Neither should the cultivated 
grasses or legumes be grazed closely, no matter of how 
long standing, during our summer months — their roots 
need protection from our summer sun. 

The Bermuda and crab grass are pre-eminently our sum- 
mer pasture grasses. The cultivated grasses and clovers 
afford pasturage during the late fall, winter and early 
spring, and supplement Bermuda and crab grass. Add to 
these lucerne and a mixture of rye and barley for winter 
and spring soiling, the cat-tail millet for summer soiling 
and forage corn for summer soiling and dry food in win- 
ter, and we have a supply of forage for cattle unsurpassed 
in any country on the globe. All that is needed is for the 
farmers to turn their attention to these matters to make 



186 A MANUAL ON CATTLE. [320] 

winter and summer dairying not only possible, but emi- 
nently successful in Georgia. Very few have given the 
subject the attention its importance would justify. Good 
butter sells in our markets at from 40 cents to 45 cents; 
poor butter at from 20 cents to 25 cents. 

ENSILAGE. 

Within the last few years the experiment of storing 
green forage in silos, or pits in the ground, has been sue 
cessfully made in the United States. It has been prac- 
ticed in Europe for some years but has been successfully 
introduced into the United States during the last three 
years. What effect this will have upon Southern hus- 
bandry it is impossible to foresee, but it promises to 
increase our already superior facilities for winter feeding 
by enabling the farmer to promptly harvest such rough 
provender as drilled corn and preserve it, by packing it 
into the silo, and excluding the air from it, for winter use 
in almost the same condition as when cut. There is 
nothing to prevent those who farm on a large scale in 
Georgia from availing themselves of ensilage, but the first 
cost of the silo will be too great to justify its use by 
small farmers. 



INDEX 



Abortion ..... 

Alderney ...... 

Analyses of Feeding Stuffs 

Analyses of Hay— Green Fodder 

Analyses of Straw— l haff— Roots— Tubers . 

Analyses of Grains, Fruits — Manufactured Products 

Angu< Polled Cattle . . 

Ayrshires ..... 

Ayrsh ires— Origin of 
Ayrshires— Description of 



23 
93-95 
93-94 
94 
95 
48 
33 
34 



Barley 

Barley— For Winter 

Beef, a— How to Judge . 

Beef- Corned 

Beef— Cooking . 

Beef— Faked and Roasted 

Bermuda Grass 

Blue Grass . 

Bicorn Cow, (Illustrated) 

Boiling Fresh Meats 

Breeds tested. 

Breeds of Cattle . 

Breed, a, 

Breeds— Best for Georgia 

Breeding— General Principles of 

Bruises 

Bui Is— Improved 

Bulls— Selection of 

Butchering— Mode of 

Butchering 

Butter— Yield of Cow Eurotus 

Butter— Managt ment of 

Butter Worker, (Illustrated) 

Butter— Keeping, 



178 

91-92 

143 

143-149 

143 

147 

173 

172 

127 

148 

8-9 

17 

17 

53 

57 

169 

61 

73-77 

143 

145 

27 

134 

140 

142 



188 



INDEX. 
C 



Calves— Attention to . , 

Oalves— Annual Increase 

Calves — Management of 

•Calves— Rearing by hand 

Cattle — Fodder for Growing 

Cattle- -Channel Island 

Cattle— Fodder for Fattening 

Cattle— Diseases of 

Chaff, etc.— Analyses of 

Channel Island Cattle 

Churning 

Choking 

Climate— Of Georgia 

Clover— Red 

Clover— White . 

Comnu-n Stock 

Corned Beef 

Cows— Price of . 

Cows— Milch.— Management of 

Cows— Period of Gestation 

Cows— Treatment before Calving 

Cows— Slomach of 

Cows— Winter Pastures for 

Cows— Drying off 

Cows— Feeding While Dry 

Cows— Soiling 

Cows-Re ation to Civilization 

Crab Grass 

Cream, What is it? 

Cross-bred . 

Cross-breeding 

Cud, Loss of 

Curveline Cow (Illustrated) 



61 

IS 

73-76 

74 

105 

23 

105 

150 

94 

23 

138 

168 

45-48 

181 

183 

18 

149 

10 

78 

82 

83-85 

89 

91 

113 

113 

114-116 

78 

177 

138 

17 



12« 



D 



Devon s 

Devons— Origin of 
Devons— Description of . 
Devons— As Work Oxen. 
Devons— As Milch Cows. 
Devons— As Beef Animals 
Demijohn Cow (Illustrated) 
Diseases of Cattle. 
Double Selvage Cow (Illustrated) 



18-19 
28 
19 

20 

20 

22 

129 

11-150 



E 



Ensilage . 
Escutcheon— What is it 
Escutcheon— Shape of 



186 
118 

m 



INDEX. 



189 



F 



fodder— Analyses of Green 

Fodder stuffs. Digestible Ingredients of 

F.-::cts from Questions on Cattle . 

Feeding Stuffs— Nutritive Value of 

Feeding Stuffs— Analyses of 

Feeding stuffs -Nutritive Ratio 

Feeding Stuffs— Money Value of 

Feeding Standards 

Feeding— Daily Rations per 1,000 lbs., live 

Flanders Cow { Illustrated) 

Foods- Nutritive Ingredients of 

Foods— Hich vs. Poor 

Foods— How to use Poor. 

Foods— Man arial value of 

Full Bloods. .... 



weight 



93-94 

101-102 

8 

93-95 

93-95 

97 

97 

98-101 

103-106 

123 

107 

108- 

109 

111-112 

17 



G 



Galloways . 

Garget 

Garget— Treatment of 

Gestation , Pe ■ i od of 

Georgia, Adaptation to Cattle 

Grades . 

Grading up Natives 

Grains, Analyses of 

Grasses and Forage Plants 

Grasses mixed with Legumes 

Green Fodder, Analysis of 

Guenon System . 

Gnenon System— How to Study 

Guernsey 

Guinea Grass 



168 
85 
82 
45 
17 
70 
95 

171 

184-5 

93 

117-121 

121 

2a 

175 



H 



Hay — Analyses of. .... 








93 


Hay— Nutritive Ingredients of . 








107 


Hay— Good and Poor . . . 








109 


Herds Grass . . 








174 


Herefords . . . . . 








37 


Herefords— Origin of 








37 


Heifers, Selection of ... 








73 


Heifer Calves, Selection and Management of . 








81 


Heifers, Age to commence breeding . 








82 


High Grades ..... 








18 


Historical Sketch ..... 








13-16 


Hollow-h<>rn ..... 








170 


Holstein or Dutch Cattle. . 








40 


Horizontal Escutcheon (Illustrated) . . 








132 


Horn-ail ....... 








170 


Hoove . t . . 








162-165 



190 



INDEX. 



Introduction 












S 


Indian Corn . . . 












180 


In-and-in Breeding 












65 


Increase in atves. 












13 


Italian Rye G. ass. 












177 




J 


Jerseys .... 


28 


Jerseys— Description of; . 


25-26 


Jerseys— Butter yield of 


2? 




K 


Keeping Butter 


14* 




L 


Left Flanders Cow (Illustrated). 


1*4 


Legumes . 








.■ 


181 


Lice on Cattle 








. 


169 


Limousine i o\v (Illustrated) 








, 


131 


Loss of Cud . . 








. 


169 


Low Grades . 








. 


18 


Lucerne .... 








• 


16* 




M 


Management of Milk and Butter 


194 


Manufactured Products, Analyses of 








95 


Meaitow Oat Grass 












17* 


Meal. Co i ton Seed, Linseed, etc. 












119 


Medick, Spotted . 












176 


Milch Cows— Management of . 












78-89 


Milch Cows— Proper Feeding of 












8$ 


Milch Cows— Winter Fodder for 












104 


Milch Cows— Selection of 












117 


Milk, Management of 












184 


Milk— Bad odors absorbed by . 












. 135-138 


Milking .... 












8S 


Millet— German and Hungarian. 












180 


Millet— Cat tail 












181 


Mixed brasses and Legume* . 












184-1 



Natives 

Natives— Grading up 



N 



Oats 

Oleomargarine ' . 
Orchard Grass 
Oxen, Fodder for. 



o 



179 
141 
17* 
104 



Pampering . 
Pastures, Shade in 
Pastures -Summer 
Poisoning . 
Puerperal Fever . 



INDEX, 
P 



191 



118 

10 

170 
165-8 



Questions On Cattle 



6-8 



R 



Rainfall in Georgia . 






48 


Red English Cattle 




21 


Red-top Grass ...... 






174 


Red Water in Cattle ..... 






150-162 


Roots— Analyses of . . ; 






94 


Roots— Nutritive Ingredients of 






107 


Rye . . 






179 


Rye for Winter ...... 






91-4)2 


8 


Scrub Cattle IS 


Selvage Cow, (Illustrated) 






125 


Short-horns . . . 






27 


Short-horns— As Dairy Cows 






32 


Short-horns— Oiigin of 






3fi 


Short-horns— Characteristics of 






29 


Short-horns— Description of 






31 


Soiling— Economy of 






. 114-115 


Sprains .... 






169 


Square Escutcheon, (Illustrated) 






180 


Steak— How to Broil .... 






146 


Stock— Common .... 






18 


Straw— Analyses of 






94 


Straw— Nutritive Ingredients of 






107 


teummer Pasturage .... 






110 



Thoroughbred 
Ticks on Cattle 
Timothy 

Tabers— Analyses of 



17 
169 
174 



Yegetation in Georgia 
Vetch 



Water— Supply of Pure important 
Winter Feed . . 

Wounds 



w 



49 

177 



112 
10 

1«9 



INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Ayrshire Bull 34 

Ayrshire Heifer ......... 85 

Bicorn C ow .... \ ... P 127 

Butter Worker 140 

Car-Boy, (Jersey Bull) (back cover). 

Cnrvelme Cow c ...... 126 

Double Selvage Cow . , . . . . . . .128 

Devon Bull. 18 

Devon Heifer. .......... 21 

Demijohn Cow .......... 129 

Flanders Cow . ... . . . . . . 723 

Flanders Cow, (Bastard) ...... 124 

Hereford Bull, " Seventy-Six " 3S 

Hereford Prize Ox 39 

Holstein Cow .......... 41 

Holstein Bull 42 

Horizontal Escutcheon ......... 131 

Jersey Heifer— " Lady Baron" ....... 23 

Jersey Bull— " Baron of Bellmont" ....... 26 

Jersey Cow— "Lucy*' ........ 134 

Left Flanders Cow ......... 124 

Limousine Cow ......... 131 

Selvage Cow .......... 125 

Short Horn Heifer 27 

Short Horn Bull 81 

«hjuare Escutcheon ...... ... 130 



